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Chapter 12
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What did Henry Clay say he was listening to at the Cumberland Gap in 1850? | He said he was “listening to the tread of the coming millions” moving westward. |
| What does Henry Clay’s Cumberland Gap story symbolize? | The future flood of westward settlers and America’s push toward expansion. |
| What long-term settlement pattern had existed since the Atlantic colonies? | Americans continuously moved westward across the continent. |
| What idea about westward movement is reflected in the pioneer diary quote? | That people believed God intended Americans to move west. |
| Who coined the term “Manifest Destiny”? | John Louis O’Sullivan |
| How did John Louis O’Sullivan define Manifest Destiny? | As America’s providential mission to possess the entire continent for liberty and self-government. |
| What does the term “Manifest Destiny” literally mean? | “Obvious destiny.” |
| What did Americans believe about their right to the continent under Manifest Destiny? | They believed a higher, divine power had given the continent to the United States. |
| What were the two main factors driving Manifest Destiny? | Land and gold. |
| What future idea was embedded within Manifest Destiny? | The early seeds of creating an American empire beyond its borders. |
| What agreement allowed the U.S. and Britain to both occupy Oregon? | The Joint Occupation agreement of 1818. |
| What present-day states were part of the original Oregon Territory? | Oregon |
| Why did Britain initially dominate the Oregon region? | British fur traders and trappers used the area heavily for the fur trade. |
| How many non–fur trade settlers lived in Oregon around 1840? | Only about 200 white settlers. |
| What sparked increased missionary interest in the Northwest? | An 1833 appeal by a Native American convert asking Christians to evangelize the tribes. |
| Who were the two main missionary couples in Oregon? | Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, and Henry and Eliza Spalding. |
| Which tribe did the Spaldings work with? | The Nez Perce. |
| What successes did the Spaldings achieve? | They built a church |
| What was Henry Spalding’s famous teaching motto? | He pointed them to “the Lamb of God” with one hand and to “the hoe” with the other. |
| Which tribe did the Whitmans try to evangelize? | The Cayuse. |
| Why did the Cayuse distrust the missionaries? | The missionaries encouraged them to abandon hunting and fishing for farming like the whites. |
| How did the Whitmans contribute to the settlement of Oregon? | They recruited settlers and guided wagon parties west. |
| What caused tensions between the Cayuse and settlers to rise? | A measles epidemic brought by settlers killed many Cayuse. |
| Why did the Cayuse blame Whitman for the epidemic? | They believed Whitman failed to cure the sick despite treating them. |
| What happened during the Whitman Massacre of 1847? | Cayuse warriors attacked the mission and killed Marcus and Narcissa Whitman and 12 other settlers. |
| How many settlers came to Oregon in 1841? | About 1,000 settlers came in 1841. |
| By the mid-1840s, how did Oregon’s population change? | The number of settlers tripled within two years. |
| What exaggerated stories about Oregon circulated in the East? | Tall tales such as pigs running around already cooked with knives and forks stuck in them. |
| What real features attracted settlers to Oregon? | Abundant land |
| Why did the joint occupation agreement of 1818 become unsatisfactory to Americans? | By the mid-1840s |
| Who led the first major group of American settlers into Texas? | Stephen F. Austin. |
| What happened in Mexico shortly after Austin arrived? | Mexico gained independence from Spain. |
| How did Austin secure approval for settling Texas? | He pledged allegiance to the new Mexican government. |
| What two major industries grew in Texas under American settlers? | Cotton growing and cattle raising. |
| Why did Mexico close its borders to Americans in 1830? | To stop Americans from trying to split Texas from Mexico. |
| What laws did Mexico pass in 1830 to control American settlers? | It banned slave importation and placed heavy taxes on U.S. goods. |
| How many Americans lived in Texas by 1835? | Between 20 |
| What illegal action did many American settlers continue to do? | They brought slaves into Texas despite Mexican law. |
| What did Stephen Austin want for Texas? | Texas becoming a separate state within the Mexican federation. |
| What did Sam Houston advocate? | Full rebellion leading to Texan independence. |
| Which group favored Sam Houston’s idea? | Newcomers and slave owners. |
| What tribe adopted Sam Houston as a teenager? | The Cherokee |
| What injuries did Houston receive at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend? | An arrow in the thigh and two bullets in the shoulder. |
| What major political positions did Houston hold in Tennessee? | U.S. Congressman and Governor. |
| Why did Houston leave Tennessee? | His wife left him after three months |
| What name did the Indians give Houston in Texas? | “Big Drunk.” |
| What revived Houston’s purpose during his time in Texas? | The Texan War for Independence. |
| What major victory made Houston famous? | His decisive victory at the Battle of San Jacinto. |
| What political roles did Houston hold in Texas after independence? | President of Texas |
| What major stance did Houston take during the Civil War? | He opposed secession and refused to swear allegiance to the Confederacy. |
| What does Houston’s tombstone inscription say? | “A Consistent Christian—An Honest Man.” |
| What was Davy Crockett famous for? | Being a frontier hero second only to Daniel Boone. |
| What political party did Crockett join after disagreeing with Andrew Jackson? | The Whig Party. |
| Why was Crockett defeated for reelection in 1834? | He opposed Jackson on Indian removal. |
| What did Crockett do after losing reelection? | He went to Texas to fight for independence. |
| How did Davy Crockett die? | He died defending the Alamo. |
| Who declared himself dictator of Mexico in 1834? | General Antonio López de Santa Anna. |
| What caused Texans to initially fight Santa Anna? | They wanted to defend the Mexican Constitution of 1824. |
| What did the blood-red flag flown by the Mexicans mean? | No mercy would be shown. |
| Who commanded the Texan defenders at the Alamo? | Jim Bowie and William Travis. |
| How long did the defenders hold out against Santa Anna? | Thirteen days. |
| How many defenders died at the Alamo? | About 190 |
| Who was named commander of the Texan army? | Sam Houston. |
| How did Houston prepare for battle? | He retreated strategically to stretch Mexican supply lines. |
| What mistake did Santa Anna make? | He split his army into three divisions. |
| When was the Battle of San Jacinto fought? | April 21 |
| What was shouted by Texans during the battle? | “Remember the Alamo!” |
| What happened to Santa Anna? | He was captured and forced to sign a treaty recognizing Texan independence. |
| Why did Andrew Jackson avoid annexing Texas? | It might start a war with Mexico and Texas would join as a slave state. |
| What was Texas’s nickname during its independence? | The “Lone Star Republic.” |
| How long was Texas an independent country? | Ten years. |
| What was the main goal of pioneers traveling west? | To reach new lands in the far West. |
| Why were overland routes called “trails” instead of roads? | They were only wagon ruts |
| What dangers did pioneers face? | Indian attacks |
| What was the Donner Party? | A group trapped in the Sierra Nevada in 1846; about half survived |
| What were the three main westward trails? | The Oregon Trail |
| What was the Santa Fe Trail mainly used for? | Commercial trade between Missouri and New Mexico. |
| Why did Mormons blaze their own trail? | They fled persecution from Nauvoo |
| What groups supported Manifest Destiny? | Southerners and Democrats. |
| What groups tended to oppose expansion? | Whigs and New Englanders. |
| Why did John Tyler become president? | President William Henry Harrison died in 1841. |
| Why did Whigs select Tyler as vice president? | To attract Southern voters. |
| Why did Whig leaders assume Tyler would follow their orders? | He had previously opposed Andrew Jackson. |
| How did Tyler surprise the Whigs? | He vetoed Whig-backed bills like a new national bank and higher tariffs. |
| What was the Whig reaction to Tyler’s vetoes? | They expelled him from the party. |
| Why did only Daniel Webster remain in Tyler’s cabinet? | He was negotiating a border treaty with Britain. |
| What conflict did the Webster–Ashburton Treaty settle? | The Maine–Canada border dispute. |
| How was the land divided? | The U.S. received 7/12 of the disputed territory; Britain received the rest. |
| What other border was clarified? | The Minnesota–Canadian border. |
| Who was the leading Whig candidate in 1844? | Henry Clay. |
| Who was expected to be the Democratic nominee? | Martin Van Buren. |
| What issue hurt both Clay and Van Buren? | Their public opposition to annexing Texas. |
| What is a “dark horse” candidate? | A nominee who was not considered a serious contender beforehand. |
| What was Polk’s nickname? | “Young Hickory.” |
| What two goals did Polk openly support? | Reoccupation of Oregon and reannexation of Texas. |
| Which third-party candidate hurt Clay’s chances? | James Birney of the Liberty Party. |
| What fear drove Texas to seek U.S. or British support? | That Mexico would invade and retake Texas. |
| Why did Britain hesitate to support Texas? | Britain had outlawed slavery |
| Why did many U.S. politicians oppose annexing Texas? | It could cause a war with Mexico and add another slave state. |
| What strategy did President Tyler use to annex Texas? | A joint resolution of Congress requiring only a simple majority. |
| When did Texas officially join the United States? | March 1845 |
| Polk was known for what kind of work habits? | He was extremely hard-working and often worked eighteen-hour days. |
| What happened to Polk’s health during his presidency? | His health declined due to constant overwork. |
| How long after leaving office did Polk die? | He died within four months of leaving office. |
| What did one historian say Polk understood about government? | That he knew how to get things done and knew what he wanted done. |
| What four goals did Polk announce on his inauguration day? | Lower the tariff |
| Did Polk accomplish all four goals? | Yes |
| Which two of Polk's goals were easy to achieve with a Democratic Congress? | Lowering the tariff and restoring the independent treasury. |
| Which two goals were more difficult? | Settling Oregon and acquiring California. |
| What moral question surrounded Polk's final goal? | Whether the U.S. should use war with Mexico to expand territory. |
| What region did the Oregon country cover? | Land from 42° latitude to 54° 40′ latitude. |
| What slogan did expansionists shout regarding Oregon? | “Fifty-four-forty or fight!” |
| What boundary did Britain claim for Oregon? | The Columbia River. |
| What boundary did Polk propose for Oregon? | The 49th parallel. |
| Why was Britain willing to compromise in 1846? | The fur trade had declined |
| What did the 1846 Oregon Treaty decide? | The 49th parallel became the U.S.–Canada boundary to the Pacific. |
| Which land did Britain keep in the Oregon settlement? | All of Vancouver Island. |
| How did Americans react to Polk’s Oregon compromise? | Most accepted it |
| What made acquiring California more difficult than settling Oregon? | U.S.–Mexico relations were hostile and unstable. |
| What did American desire for California and Texas lead to? | The Mexican War (1846–48). |
| What was the Mexican War the climax of? | Manifest Destiny. |
| What was the first major cause of the Mexican War? | Long-standing hostility between the U.S. and Mexico. |
| How did many Americans view Mexicans? | As crude or inferior. |
| How did many Mexicans view Americans? | As arrogant and threatening. |
| Why was Mexico’s political instability a problem? | Constant revolutions prevented resolving disputes. |
| What was the second major cause of the war? | American desire for California and New Mexico. |
| Why did expansionists want California? | Its fertile land and excellent harbors. |
| Why did expansionists want New Mexico? | The profitable trade from the Santa Fe Trail. |
| What was the third cause of the war? | Mexico's anger over the U.S. annexing Texas. |
| What was the fourth cause of the war? | A failed attempt at peaceful negotiation—Mexico refused to discuss selling land. |
| How much was Polk willing to pay for California and New Mexico? | Up to $30 million. |
| Why did Mexico refuse negotiation? | They considered it an insult and feared revolt if they considered selling land. |
| What was the fifth cause and final spark of conflict? | A dispute over the Texas–Mexico border. |
| What boundary did Mexico claim for Texas? | The Nueces River. |
| What boundary did the U.S. claim? | The Rio Grande. |
| Who did Polk send into the disputed territory? | General Zachary Taylor. |
| What happened on April 25 | 1846? |
| What did this attack allow Polk to do? | Ask Congress for a declaration of war. |
| When did Congress approve the war? | Within days of hearing the news in May 1846. |
| Why did many Americans oppose the war? | They believed it was an unjust war of conquest. |
| What did John C. Calhoun warn about expansion into Mexico? | That it would bring political ruin. |
| What did Abraham Lincoln propose in Congress? | The “Spot Resolution” demanding to know where the first attack occurred. |
| What nickname did Lincoln earn? | “Spotty Lincoln.” |
| What did the House later declare about the war? | That it had been “unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun.” |
| Why was the war difficult for Polk to manage? | The army was small and unprepared. |
| How many regular soldiers were in the U.S. Army when the war started? | About 7 |
| Who were the two main U.S. generals in the war? | Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott. |
| Why was Polk jealous of his generals? | Both were Whigs and their victories increased their popularity. |
| What advantage did the U.S. have that led to victory? | Naval superiority and better preparation than Mexico. |
| What are the four campaigns of the Mexican War? | Taylor in northern Mexico |
| What was Zachary Taylor’s nickname? | “Old Rough and Ready.” |
| Why did new recruits fail to recognize Taylor? | He dressed sloppily and looked like an ordinary soldier. |
| Why did Taylor's men love him? | He was brave |
| What were Taylor’s weaknesses? | Poor strategy and lack of experience against a formal army. |
| What city did Taylor capture after a three-day battle? | Monterrey. |
| Why didn’t the victory at Monterrey end the war? | Mexico refused to surrender. |
| Why did the Democratic administration limit Taylor’s opportunities? | Whigs wanted Taylor for president |
| What did Winfield Scott do to Taylor’s army? | He took Taylor’s best troops |
| Who led the 15 | 000-man Mexican army against Taylor? |
| How did Santa Anna return to power? | Polk let him return to Mexico believing he would support peace |
| What was the most desperate U.S. battle of the war? | The Battle of Buena Vista. |
| Who won the Battle of Buena Vista? | Taylor’s smaller force successfully held off Santa Anna. |
| Who led the New Mexico campaign? | General Stephen Kearny. |
| How many troops did Kearny have? | About 1 |
| How difficult was the capture of New Mexico? | It faced almost no resistance. |
| When did Kearny capture Santa Fe? | August 18 |
| Where did Kearny go after securing New Mexico? | He marched west to assist in the conquest of California. |
| Why was California harder to capture than New Mexico? | Mexican residents far outnumbered American settlers. |
| Who led an expedition into California? | Captain John C. Frémont. |
| What was Frémont’s nickname? | “The Pathfinder of the West.” |
| What republic was formed by rebels in California? | The Bear Flag Republic. |
| Why did Frémont support the rebellion? | He wrongly believed the U.S. and Mexico were still at peace. |
| How did the U.S. take control after war was confirmed? | The American navy arrived and joined forces with Frémont and settlers. |
| Why did Californians initially welcome Americans? | They hoped for stability and protection. |
| Why did they later rebel? | Some American soldiers treated them harshly. |
| What city did Mexicans temporarily recapture? | Los Angeles. |
| Who eventually crushed the revolt? | Combined forces under Kearny |
| By when was California firmly under U.S. control? | January 1847. |
| Who led the campaign against Mexico City? | General Winfield Scott. |
| What was Scott’s nickname? | “Old Fuss and Feathers.” |
| How did Scott’s personality differ from Taylor’s? | He was more formal |
| Where did Scott land his forces in 1847? | South of Veracruz. |
| How quickly did he capture Veracruz? | In less than three weeks. |
| How did Scott outmaneuver Santa Anna? | He repeatedly moved troops across terrain Santa Anna thought was impassable. |
| What happened in August and September 1847? | A series of bloody battles occurred outside Mexico City. |
| When did Scott capture Mexico City? | September 14 |
| What treaty ended the Mexican War? | The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. |
| What land did Mexico give up? | Texas to the Rio Grande |
| How much money did the U.S. pay Mexico? | $15 million plus $3.25 million in debts owed to Americans. |
| What was the Gadsden Purchase? | A 1853 purchase of land in southern Arizona and New Mexico. |
| How much did the U.S. pay for the Gadsden Purchase? | $10 million. |
| Why was the Gadsden Purchase important? | It provided land for a transcontinental railroad route. |
| Who negotiated the Gadsden Purchase? | James Gadsden. |
| What did the Gadsden Purchase finalize? | The present-day continental boundaries of the United States. |
| What role did Santa Anna play in the Gadsden Purchase? | He sold the land but was later overthrown partly because of it. |
| What did the expansion through the Mexican War represent? | The climax of Manifest Destiny. |
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