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| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Adaptive Immunity | Adaptive immunity is the body’s learned defense system that targets specific germs and remembers them for future protection. It develops after exposure to pathogens or vaccines and provides long-lasting, highly specialized responses |
| . Adaptive Immunity | • Adaptive immunity is orchestrated by lymphocytes (B cells & T cells). • T-cell immunity = cell-mediated immunity (direct attack on pathogens). • B-cell immunity = antibody-mediated immunity (production of antibodies). |
| Antibodies | Antibodies are proteins your body makes to fight germs. |
| Antibodies IgM: IgD: | IgM: First antibody synthesized by immature B cells; inserted into their plasma membranes. IgD: Function is basically unknown; found in small amounts on B cells. |
| Antibodies IgG IgA: IgE: | IgG: Most abundant antibody in circulation; provides long-term immunity. IgA: Found in mucosal secretions (saliva, tears, breast milk). IgE: Involved in allergic reactions and defense against parasites. |
| Viral Defense | • Interferon: Protein that interferes with viral replication, reducing ability of viruses to cause disease. |
| Complement System | • Complement: Best described as an enzyme system in blood. • Complement cascade: Produces the membrane attack complex (MAC) → causes cytolysis (bursting of target cells). |
| What are Pyrogens? | Pyrogens are substances (often produced by bacteria, viruses, or your own immune cells) that cause fever. “fever signals” to the brain |
| Pyrogens | cause fever by telling the hypothalamus to make prostaglandins, which reset your body’s thermostat to a higher temperature. |
| T Cell Development | • Pre-T cells in thymus: Develop into thymocytes, which proliferate rapidly |
| • Lymphotoxin: | A powerful poison produced by lymphocytes that directly kills cells |
| when does antigen recognition occur | • Recognition occurs when antigen’s epitopes fit into and bind to an antibody’s antigen-binding site |
| Lymphatic System Functions | • Two main functions: Fluid balance and immunity. |
| • Lymph nodes: | Provide defense (filter pathogens) and hematopoiesis (production/maturation of lymphocytes). |
| • Lymph pressure gradient: | Established by breathing movements and skeletal muscle contractions. |
| Immune Cell Movement • Chemotaxis | Cells move toward higher concentrations of chemotactic factors (chemical signals guiding them to infection sites). |
| • Cytolysis: | Cell bursting due to complement attack |
| • Apoptosis: | Programmed cell death (not complement-related). |
| • Hemostasis | Stopping bleeding (not a lymphatic function). |
| • Diapedesis: | Movement of WBCs through vessel walls (not a primary lymph node function). |
| • Lymphatic fluid (lymph): | clear, watery, contains proteins, salts, and other substances. |
| • Tissue fluid = intercellular | (interstitial) fluid (between cells). |
| Lymphatic System Functions | • Purpose: fight against infection. • Collects excess tissue fluid and returns it to the bloodstream. • Transports immune cells throughout the body. |
| Lymph Flow | • Lymph flows in one direction only → toward the heart. • Pathway: tissue fluid → lymphatic vessels → lymph nodes (filtering) → heart (via subclavian veins). |
| Lymphatic Organs | • Bone marrow: produces B cells. • Thymus: matures T cells. • Spleen: filters blood, produces lymphocytes. • Lymph nodes: filter lymph, house lymphocytes • Pancreas → ❌ Not a lymph organ (digestive/endocrine). |
| Immune Cells | • T cells: considered the receiver (receive antigen signals from antigen-presenting cells). • B cells: release millions of antibodies to fight antigens. • Antibodies: proteins that bind to antigens and neutralize them. |
| Lacteals | • Specialized lymphatic capillaries located in the villi of the small intestine. • Function: Absorb dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). |
| Breast Lymphatic Drainage | • Superficial lymphatics: Drain skin over the breast (except areola & nipple). • Deep lymphatics: Drain breast tissue itself + areola & nipple. • Main drainage: Axillary lymph nodes (clinically important in breast cancer). |
| Lymph Node Size | • Range: 1 mm to more than 20 mm in diameter. • Enlarged nodes (lymphadenopathy) may indicate infection, inflammation, or malignancy. |
| Types of Immunity | • Nonspecific (innate) immunity → General defense against anything “not self.” • Specific (adaptive) immunity → Targets particular pathogens with precision. • Autoimmune → Malfunction where immune system attacks self. |
| First Line of Defense | • Skin → Physical barrier protecting internal environment • Other lines: o 2nd line: White blood cells, inflammation. o 3rd line: Adaptive immunity (T & B cells). |
| • Thoracic duct | drains lymph from entire body except upper right quadrant. |
| Tonsils | • Masses of lymphoid tissue in Waldeyer’s ring (mouth & pharynx). • Function: First line of defense against inhaled/ingested pathogens. |
| Pharyngeal Tonsils | • Located near posterior opening of nasal cavity (nasopharynx). • Commonly called adenoids when enlarged. |
| Cortical Nodules | • Found in lymph nodes. • Composed of packed lymphocytes surrounding a lighter area called the germinal center. • Germinal centers: Site of B cell proliferation, differentiation, and antibody maturation. |
| Thoracic Duct Lymph Sources | • About half of lymph in thoracic duct comes from: o Liver o Small intestine (rich in fats → chyle) |
| Lymph Nodes Above Elbow | • Located just above bend of elbow → Supratrochlear lymph nodes. • Drain forearm and hand. |
| Lung Volumes & Capacities | • Tidal Volume (TV): Air exhaled normally after a typical inspiration (~500 mL). • Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Extra air inhaled after normal inspiration. • Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Extra air exhaled after normal expiration. |
| Lung Volumes & Capacities | • Residual Volume (RV): Air remaining in lungs after maximal exhalation. • Inspiratory Capacity (IC): TV + IRV. • Total Lung Capacity (TLC): Maximum air lungs can hold (includes RV). |
| • Pulmonary Ventilation: | Total air moved in/out of lungs per minute |
| • Alveolar Ventilation: | Portion of inspired air that reaches alveoli for gas exchange |
| • Physiological Dead Space: | Air that does not participate in gas exchange (anatomical dead space + non-perfused alveoli). |
| • Oxygen Transport: | o Bound to hemoglobin (98–99%). o Dissolved in plasma (1–2%). o ❌ Not carried as bicarbonate ions. |
| • Myoglobin: | Oxygen-binding protein in muscle cells; facilitates oxygen diffusion into muscle. |
| • Fetal Hemoglobin: | Higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin. |
| • Carbaminohemoglobin: | Compound formed when CO₂ binds to hemoglobin |
| • Carbon Dioxide Transport: | o Bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻): Major form (>2/3 of CO₂). o Carbaminohemoglobin: ~20–25%. o Dissolved CO₂ in plasma: Small fraction. o Carbonic acid (H₂CO₃): Transient intermediate |
| • Dalton’s Law: | Total pressure = sum of partial pressures of gases. • Dalton’s Law: Concerns partial pressures of gases in a mixture. |
| • Boyle’s Law: volume of gas is inversely proportional to pressure. P×V="constant" | •This principle is directly applied in breathing: when the thoracic cavity expands, lung volume increases → pressure decreases → air flows in. When the cavity contracts, lung volume decreases → pressure increases → air flows out. |
| • Henry’s Law: | Gas dissolves in liquid proportional to partial pressure & solubility. • Henry’s Law: Describes how gases dissolve in liquids depending on partial pressure and solubility. |
| • Charles’s Law: | Volume of gas directly proportional to temperature (at constant pressure). • Charles’s Law: States that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature (at constant pressure). |
| Acid–Base Balance | • ↑ CO₂ → ↑ H⁺ → ↓ pH (respiratory acidosis). • ↓ CO₂ → ↓ H⁺ → ↑ pH (respiratory alkalosis). |
| • Chloride Shift (Hamburger phenomenon): | • Chloride Shift (Hamburger phenomenon): |
| Breathing Mechanics | • Pressure Gradients: Established by changes in thoracic cavity volume (Boyle’s Law). • Hyperpnea: Increased depth and rate of breathing (exercise). • Apnea: Temporary cessation of breathing. • Dyspnea: Difficulty breathing (symptom, not a disorder). |
| Respiratory Disorders | • Asthma: Obstructive disorder with recurring smooth muscle spasms in bronchi. • COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (includes emphysema, chronic bronchitis). • Emphysema: Destruction of alveolar walls, loss of elastic recoil. |
| Gas Exchange | • Site of gas exchange: Alveoli • External respiration: Gas exchange between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries • Internal respiration: Gas exchange between systemic capillaries and tissue cells |
| Regulation of Respiration • Regulated processes: Pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange, transport of gases | • Not regulated: Control of cell metabolism rate • Exercise effect: ↑ Cellular respiration → ↑ CO₂ → ↓ pH → chemoreceptors stimulate ↑ respiratory rate • Factors increasing respiratory rate: ↑ PCO₂, ↓ PO₂, ↓ pH, ↓ arterial pressure |
| • Inspiration: | Lung pressure < atmospheric pressure → air flows in |
| • Expiration: | Lung pressure > atmospheric pressure → air flows out |
| Oxygen Content | • Arterial blood O₂ content: ~20 volume % (20 mL O₂ per 100 mL blood) |
| • Vibrissae (nasal hairs): | Initial filter for particulate matter in inspired air |
| Major Divisions of the Digestive Tract | • Alimentary canal (GI tract): mouth → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → rectum → anus |
| major Divisions of the Digestive Tract Accessory organs: | tongue, teeth, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas |
| Small Intestine Anatomy | • Duodenum – first section, receives chyme + bile + pancreatic juice • Jejunum – middle section, major site of absorption • Ileum – final section, connects to cecum of large intestine • ❌ Cecum – part of large intestine, not small intestine |
| Epithelial Linings | Esophagus Stratified squamous Protection from abrasion Stomach Simple columnar Secretion of mucus, acid, enzymes Small intestine Simple columnar w/ brush border Absorption + secretion Large intestine Simple columnar Water absorption, mucus secretion |
| Oral Cavity Structures | • Uvula – flap of tissue hanging from soft palate • Fauces – opening between oral cavity & pharynx • Frenulum – fold securing tongue to floor of mouth • Gingiva – gums around teeth |
| Tongue Papillae | • Vallate – large, V-shaped row at back; taste buds present • Fungiform – mushroom-shaped; taste buds present • Foliate – lateral edges; taste buds present (esp. in children) • Filiform – thread-like; ❌ no taste buds (texture only) |
| Salivary Glands | Gland Secretion Type Notes Parotid Serous (watery, enzyme-rich) Amylase for starch digestion Submandibular Mixed (serous + mucus) Majority of daily saliva Sublingual Mucus only Thick, lubricating |
| Swallowing (Deglutition) | • Oral phase – voluntary, tongue pushes bolus back • Pharyngeal phase – involuntary, soft palate & epiglottis close off nasal cavity & airway • Esophageal phase – involuntary, peristalsis moves bolus to stomach |
| • Barium enema (lower GI series | detects polyps, tumors, diverticula |
| Muscles of the Tongue • Extrinsic muscles | : originate outside tongue, insert into it → move tongue position (protrude, retract, elevate, depress) |
| Muscles of the Tongue • Intrinsic muscles: | : both origin & insertion inside tongue → change tongue shape (curl, flatten, narrow) |
| Overview of Digestive Processes | • Ingestion – taking in food/drink • Propulsion – swallowing (deglutition) + peristalsis • Mechanical digestion – chewing (mastication), segmentation in intestines |
| Overview of Digestive Processes | Chemical digestion – hydrolysis via enzymes + bile emulsification • Absorption – passage of nutrients into blood/lymph • Defecation – elimination of indigestible material |
| Overview of Digestive Processes | • Oral stage – voluntary, tongue pushes bolus back • Pharyngeal (oropharyngeal) stage – involuntary, epiglottis closes airway (risk of aspiration here) • Esophageal stage – involuntary, peristalsis moves bolus to stomach ❌ No “laryngeal stage |
| . Stomach & Gastric Secretions | Cell Type Secretion Function Parietal cells HCl + intrinsic factor Activates pepsin, B₁₂ absorption Chief cells Pepsinogen + gastric lipase Protein + fat digestion |
| . Stomach & Gastric Secretions | G cells Gastrin Stimulates acid + motility Mucous cells Mucus Protects lining |
| • Phases of gastric secretion: | cephalic → gastric → intestinal (no “digestive” phase) |
| Small Intestine | • Duodenum – receives chyme, bile, pancreatic juice • Jejunum – absorption of nutrients • Ileum – absorption, connects to cecum • Cecum – part of large intestine, not small intestine |
| Lipid Digestion | • Bile salts emulsify fats → micelles • Micelles deliver fatty acids/monoglycerides to intestinal mucosa • Inside cells → reassembled into triglycerides → packaged into chylomicrons • Chylomicrons enter lymph → bloodstream |
| Salivary Glands & Enzymes | • Parotid – serous, amylase • Submandibular – mixed • Sublingual – mucus • Saliva enzyme: amylase (starch digestion) |
| Liver & Blood Flow | • Lobes: right, left, caudate, quadrate |
| • Blood supply: | o Hepatic portal vein → ~80% (nutrient-rich) o Hepatic artery → ~20% (oxygen-rich) |
| • Hydrolysis | water splits compounds into simpler molecules (chemical digestion) |
| • Emulsification | bile breaks fat globules into droplets |
| • Peristalsis – | wave-like propulsion |
| • Segmentation | mixing contractions |
| Macronutrient Digestion • Carbohydrates | o Digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase. o Polysaccharides → disaccharides (amylase) → monosaccharides (maltase, sucrase, lactase). o Final product: monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, fructose). |
| Macronutrient Digestion • Proteins | o Digestion begins in the stomach with pepsin. o Broken down into peptides → amino acids. o Final product: amino acids. |
| Macronutrient Digestion • Fats (lipids) | o Digestion begins in the small intestine with bile salts + pancreatic lipase. o Triglycerides → glycerol + fatty acids. o Final product: glycerol and fatty acids. |
| Macronutrient Digestion • Nucleic acids | o Digested by nucleases into nucleotides. |
| Mechanical Digestion | • Mouth: Chewing (mastication). • Esophagus: Deglutition (swallowing, voluntary oral stage) + peristalsis (involuntary). • Stomach: Churning. • Small intestine: Segmentation. • Not mechanical digestion: moistening food (chemical/secretory). |
| Phases of Gastric Secretion | • Cephalic phase: Triggered by sight, smell, taste, thought of food (vagus nerve). • Gastric phase: Triggered by food in stomach (stretch + chemical stimuli). • Intestinal phase: Triggered by chyme entering duodenum; mostly inhibitory. |
| Digestive Hormones | |
| Gastrin | trigger Food in stomach main action Stimulates gastric acid secretion |
| Secretin | trigger Acidic chyme in duodenum main action Stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate |
| Cholecystokinin (CCK) | trigger fats/proteins in duodenum action Stimulates gallbladder (bile release) + pancreas (enzymes) |
| Enterogastrone | Fatty chyme in duodenum Inhibits gastric motility/secretion |
| GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide) | trigger Fatty chyme action Inhibits gastric activity, stimulates insulin release |
| Transport & Absorption • Sodium-glucose cotransport (SGLT1): | • Sodium-glucose cotransport (SGLT1): • Glucose exits into blood via GLUT2 (facilitated diffusion). • Fats absorbed as micelles → reassembled into triglycerides → packaged into chylomicrons. |
| Residues of Digestion | • Cellulose: Indigestible carbohydrate (fiber) from plant cell walls. • Provides bulk to stool; passes undigested. |
| Liver Functions | • Detoxification of harmful substances. • Storage of iron and vitamins (A, D, E, K, B12). • Production of bile. • Does not secrete insulin (that’s the pancreas |
| The process of fat emulsification consists of… | Breaking fats into small droplets. |
| Bicarbonates are useful in the GI tract to | Neutralize hydrochloric acid |
| Which of the following is not true of enzymes? | They change chemically and are in the end products of the reaction |
| An end product of fat digestion is | Glycerol. |
| Which of these is not an example of mechanical digestion? | Moistening the food. |
| Hormone that causes release of digestive enzymes from intestinal mucosa? | Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin. |
| Which of the following is a disaccharide? | Sucrose. |
| Which phase of gastric secretion is stimulated by sight, taste, smell of food? | Cephalic phase. |
| Which of the following is not a function of the liver? | Secretion of insulin. |
| Hormone that stimulates gallbladder to release bile? | Cholecystokinin. |
| Which step of deglutition is under voluntary control? | Oral stage. |
| Which opening does not need to be blocked when food moves into esophagus? | Oropharynx. |
| Cellulose is a residue of digestion that comes from… | carbohydrates |
| Polysaccharides are hydrolyzed into disaccharides by… | amylase |
| Hormone that stimulates release of bicarbonate from pancreas? | secretion |
| Hormone that inhibits gastric muscle, slowing passage of food into duodenum? | Enterogastrone. |
Created by:
dianaduran10