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Anatomy Studystack 2
| Axial Muscles: position head/neck, support and stabilize vertebral column, protect thoracic/abdominal organs, assist breathing, maintain posture, and enable trunk flexion, rotation, and lateral bending | include facial, intercostal, abdominal, erector spinae and neck muscles,. Hey roles: respiration, spinal alignment, organ protection, swallowing, eye movement, and maintaining upright body position |
| Appendicular muscles: control movement of shoulders, arms, hands, pelvis, legs and feet; stabilize girdles, enable locomotion, reaching, gripping, throwing, blanace, and coordinated limb actions. | include deltoid, biceps, triceps, gluteal quadriceps, hamstrings, rotator cuff, forearm flexors/extensors. Essential for fine motor control, walking, lifting, climbing, and maintaining joint stability. |
| Neuron: excitable cell with dendrites (input), soma (integration), axon (AP conduction), myelin (speed), and synaptic terminals (neurotransmitter release). Basis of communication in nervous system. | AP travels down axon to terminal, releasing chemical signals to next cell. Neurons process, store, and transmit info; classify as sensory, motor, or interneurons; rely on ion movement for signals. |
| Neuroglia: support neurons; include afterbirth (nutrients/BBB) oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells (myelin), microglia (immune), ependymal cells (CSF). Outnumber neurons and maintain environment | regulate ions, repair tissue, provide scaffolding, remove debris, insulate axons, circulate CSF, guide development, maintain homeostasis for effective neuronal signals and protection. |
| CNS (brain +spinal cord): integration and control centers for thoughts, memory, emotional, movement, reflexes, sensory providing. Coordinates all voluntary and involuntary functions. | Brain regions manage specific tasks, spinal cord conducts signals and mediates reflexes. CNS processes input, generates motor output, keeps the body balanced and maintains homeostasis via feedback loops. |
| PNS: cranial and spinal nerves that connect body to CNS; includes somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) divisions; carries all sensory input and motor commands. | Somatic controls skeletal muscle; autonomic controls organs/glands; PNS enables reflexes, posture control, pain detection, movement coordination, and communication between tissues and CNS. |
| ANS: involuntary control of heart, smooth muscle, glands. Sympathetic = fight/flight (↑HR, ↑BP). Parasympathetic = rest/digest (↓HR, digestion). Balances stress and recovery. | Works via dual innervation, neurotransmitters (ACh, NE), and reflex loops. Regulates digestion, pupils, airway diameter, urine output, sexual function, metabolism, and blood vessel tone. |
| Special senses: vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, smell. Use complex receptors in eyes, ears, tongue, nose; convert light, sound, and chemical signals into neural impulses. | Provide awareness of environment, spatial orientation, flavor perception, balance, and detection of hazards. Rely on sensory pathways to brain areas for detailed processing and interpretation. |
| Endocrine glands release hormones into blood; regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction, stress, electrolytes, glucose, long-term homeostasis; slower but longer-lasting than nervous system. | Includes pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads. Hormones act on target cells with receptors, alter cell function, coordinate organ systems, and maintain balance during stress or change. |
| Heart: muscular pump with 4 chambers, valves, conduction pathway (SA→AV→bundle→Purkinje). Drives pulmonary and systemic circuits to deliver O₂ and nutrients and remove wastes. | Right side sends deoxygenated blood to lungs; left sends oxygenated blood to body. Valves ensure one-way flow. Electrical system sets rhythm. Coronary vessels supply heart muscle itself. |
| Blood: plasma (nutrients/wastes), RBCs (O₂ transport), WBCs (immune defense), platelets (clotting). Maintains pH, temp, fluid balance, and distribution of hormones and heat. | RBCs use hemoglobin; WBCs include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils; platelets form clots; plasma carries proteins like albumin, fibrinogen, antibodies. |
| Lymphatic system: returns excess fluid to blood, absorbs dietary fats, transports lymph, and houses immune cells in nodes, spleen, thymus, and tonsils for pathogen monitoring. | Filters lymph, removes debris, exposes antigens to lymphocytes, supports defense, maintains fluid volume, prevents edema, and works closely with cardiovascular and immune systems. |
| Immune system: innate (barriers, phagocytes, inflammation) + adaptive (T/B cells, antibodies, memory). Identifies and destroys pathogens, abnormal cells, and foreign substances. | Adaptive creates long-lasting immunity; innate offers rapid nonspecific defense. Coordinates cytokines, antigen presentation, cell-mediated and humoral responses for full protection. |
| Respiratory tract: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli; conditions air and conducts it to gas-exchange surfaces. | Alveoli provide large surface area; elastic tissue aids recoil; airway smooth muscle regulates airflow; upper tract warms/filters air; lower tract handles ventilation and gas exchange. |
| Gas exchange: O₂ into blood, CO₂ out; occurs across thin alveolar-capillary membrane; driven by pressure gradients and diffusion. | Requires proper ventilation, perfusion, surfactant, intact membranes, and matching of airflow/blood flow. Supports cellular respiration and acid-base balance across the body. |
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