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Child Psych test 5
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Moral development | involves acquiring standards about right and wrong and acting in accordance with these standards |
| Three influential theories explain regularities in children’s moral development | • Jean Piaget • Lawrence Kohlberg • Elliot Turiel |
| Piaget’s Theory | Young children believe that behaviors that are “bad” or “naughty” are those that cause serious damage or harm. |
| • For preschoolers, “good” behavior consists of obeying adults and other authority figures. • Around age 5, children begin to judge what is good and appropriate based on established rules for behavior (moral realism). | |
| • By the upper elementary grades, children consider people’s motives when evaluating behaviors. • Children recognize that rules are created primarily to help people get along and can be changed if everyone agrees to the change. | |
| Kohlberg’s Theory | Children construct standards for right & wrong age-related changes in levels of moral reasoning Children reason about hypothetical moral dilemmas Situation in which two people’s rights/needs are at odds and there is no clear-cut right/wrong solution |
| Preconventional morality | The earliest and least mature form of moral reasoning |
| Conventional morality | Acceptance of society’s conventions regarding right and wrong |
| Postconventional morality | View rules as useful mechanism that are created to maintain the social order and protect human rights rather than as absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. |
| Levels of Morality, Kohlberg’s Theory | Preconventional reasoning Stage 1:Punishment-avoidance and obedience Stage 2:Exchange of favors Conventional reasoning Stage 3:Good boy/good girl Stage 4:Law and order Postconventional reasoning Stage 5:Social contract Stage 6:Universal ethical |
| Kohlberg’s Theory situational stories | man steals money to buy sick mom her medicine |
| Weaknesses in Kohlberg’s Theory | Moral issues conflated with social conventions • People views these to domains differently Helping and showing compassion for others was overlooked Cognitive factors emphasized,but emotions overlooked Importance of environmental & situational factors |
| Social Domain Theory of Moral Development (Turiel) | Children construct understandings of rules as they think about everyday experiences Recognition of rules and cultural practices in different social domains |
| moral transgressions: | cause harm or violate human rights |
| conventional transgressions: | violate accepted ways to act (culture specific) ex. burp |
| personal matters: | choices based on individual preferences ex. pineapple on pizza |
| Internal standards develop early | Right versus wrong before age 2 Psychological harm is bad by age 3 Physical harm is bad by age 4 |
| Children’s emotions affect their moral responses | Guilt, shame, empathy, sympathy |
| Children’s understanding of fairness evolves throughout childhood The ability to share with others depends on a sense of: | Distributive justice, the commitment to share a valued commodity Parity: fairness – a commodity is divided into equal portions (early elementary school) Equity: people who contribute more vs. people who are economically poor (middle elementary school) |
| Children incorporate other considerations besides moral values when deciding how to behave | • Perspective taking • Emotions (guilt, empathy, sympathy) • Personal goals (consequences of behavior – other’s approval) • Benefits are high and the personal costs are low |
| Brain maturation | Neurological basis for perceiving others’ emotions, inhibiting impulses, and distinguishing moral and social-conventional events |
| Parenting | Responding to misbehavior, using discipline appropriately, practicing induction (act of explaining why a certain behavior is unacceptable, usually with a focus on the pain or distress that someone has caused another), and conversing about moral behavior |
| Trajectories in moral learning: strategies for different students | • Fostering committed compliance • Focusing on explanations and warmth for students who are anxious • Incentivizing and enforcing compliance for children who are impulsive • Supporting children who are not quick to perceive certain emotions |
| committed compliance | (children’s eagerness to comply with directions of parents, guardians, and caregivers) |
| Interactions with peers | Sharing, cooperating, and learning to resolve interpersonal conflicts |
| Intellectual abilities | High intellectual capacity associated with advanced moral reasoning Possible for children of all intellectual levels to show empathy |
| Identity | Seeing self as caring, honest, respectful, and helpful to others |
| Sex differences (justice and compassion) | Kohlberg reflects justice orientation (males) Gilligan reflects a care orientation in addition to justice (females) Both justice and care orientations seen in males/females alike |
| School curriculum and policies | Models of discipline encourage good behavior and fairness |
| Religious doctrines | Having a religious faith/ethical position plays a role in moral development Doesn’tcenhance moral reasoning but a compelling rationale for acting humanely, humbly, righteously Many children raised without a religious faith still develop moral standard |
| Culture and society: unique standards, differences among cultures | • Common principles: protect others from harm; protect their rights; balance justice and compassion for others |
| Promoting Moral Development | Ask children for input on classroom rules. Explain why certain behaviors are acceptable and others are not. Discuss moral dilemmas with children. Identify moral issues in the curriculum (literature – Hamlet). |
| Encourage children to invite excluded classmates to participate in activities. Establish cooperative learning groups. Challenge children’s moral reasoning with slightly more advanced positions. Involve children in community service | |
| Foster religious tolerance. Appeal to children’s emotional insights (how they felt during difficulty circumstances). Discourage cheating. Often, children need to be taught why cheating is wrong. | |
| Prosocial behavior | promotes well-being of others (by helping, sharing, teaching, or comforting) |
| Aggression | to hurt another intentionally – either physically (hitting), or psychologically (embarrassing, insulting) |
| Development of Prosocial Behavior | Try to help others from the first years of life More thoughtful helping in elementary school Genuine concern about others deepens during childhood and becomes a serious motive |
| Types of aggression | Physical: action causing bodily injury Relational: action that adversely affects friendships Reactive: hit, push, and shove out of frustration, anger, or provocation Proactive: initiate aggressive behaviors deliberately (bullies) Miracle |
| Bullies and other aggressive children may have one or more of the following limitations: | Misinterpret social cues Prioritize self-serving goals Have rudimentary problem-solving skills (dont know how to persuade, negotiate, or compromise) Believe their aggression is justified |
| Are morally disengaged (rationalize aggressive behaviors) Use multiple outlets to pester peers | |
| Biological factors | Chemical substances in the brain, partly guided by genes • Affect dispositions for seeking stimulation, inhibiting impulses, coping with frustration, and lashing out Traumatic brain injuries—problems with anger, fear, and aggression |
| Parenting (genetics and socialization styles) | Authoritative parenting promotes collaborative style in children Harsh or neglectful parenting promotes hurtful habits and reactive aggression in children Frequent physical punishment promotes aggression in children Permissive parenting |
| School, culture, and society | School provides positive influences by creating a safe environment and encouraging prosocial behavior Resources are available for reducing discrimination and promoting equity Culture influences children’s targets for compassion and aggression |
| Sex differences | Boys more physically aggressive; no differences in relational aggression |
| Individual profiles: hurting or helping patterns become stable | • Counseling may be effective in enhancing empathy and reducing aggression |
| Encouraging Children to Act with Compassion and Curb Aggressive Impulses | • Development-Enhancing Education: Promoting Prosocial Skills and Discouraging Aggression • Treat children compassionately; expose them to prosocial behavior • Give concrete behavior guidelines; label appropriate behaviors that occur |
| Creating a Safe and Nurturing School Environment | Three levels of support in improving conduct, enhancing emotional regulation, and boosting academic learning (3 tier triangle) |
| Tier 1 Creating a healthy school environment (involving all students) | Strategies such as teaching school values and forming caring and trusting teacher-student relationships |
| Tier 2 Intervening early for students at risk | Small group instruction in social skills and emotional regulation |
| Tier 3 Providing intensive intervention for students in trouble | Individualized programs to reduce anxiety and address social withdrawal, rapid decline in academic performance, and other signs |
| Gangs | Group with a unique identity that claims jurisdiction over a region and commits criminal activities (theft, harassment, drug dealing, sexual assault, shootings) |
| Limit gang influence in school settings | • Prohibit all signs of gang affiliation at school • Enforce policies regarding potential threats to school safety • Identify nature/scope of gang activity in student population • Actively mediate gang-related disputes |
| Functions of peer relationships | Peers offer emotional support Peers are partners in practicing social skills Peers train one another for social life Peers contribute to a sense of identity |
| Social skills | interpersonal interactions and gestures that facilitate smooth and friendly interactions with others • Skills in perceiving others’ needs and making/keeping friends • Socially competent |
| Developmental trends in social skills Infancy | coordinate eye contact, smiles, utterances with caregivers |
| Developmental trends in social skills Early childhood | exercise skills in sociodramatic and cooperative play and in different types of interactions with others |
| Developmental trends in social skills Middle childhood | increase awareness of others’ opinions and desire to be accepted; affiliate in networks and care about equity |
| Developmental trends in social skills Early adolescence | rely on peers like themselves for emotional support; engage in peer pressure; conform to peers’ standards |
| Developmental trends in social skills Late adolescence | engage with peers and define who they are as individuals (identity); see uniqueness in self and others |
| Personal characteristics | • Differences in quantity and quality of relationships with other children • Effects of disabilities (such as autism or severe intellectual disability |
| Sex differences | More attachments for girls than for boys; more physical activities for boys |
| Family, culture, and community | • Family influences and modeling; extent to which family encourages getting with peers; cultural norms about engaging with peers • Size of community and number of potential playmates living nearby |
| Acceptance and influence among social partners | Popular: well liked and trusted by peers Rejected: alienate others and have poor social skills Neglected: quiet, keep to themselves, may lack social skills Controversial: liked by some and intensely disliked by others Average: not liked or disliked |
| Social influence | a characteristic of popularity (charisma) • Sway opinions and decisions of peers (aggressive or manipulative); tend to push boundaries with risky behaviors as adolescents |
| Voluntary relationships: | chosen; maintained through efforts to affiliate |
| Powered by shared routines: | talk through likes and dislikes; find common ground |
| Reciprocal relationships: | address one another’s needs |
| Offer ongoing, dependable support: | help each other cope |
| Friendships through the developmental periods Infancy: | attune to each other’s behaviors; display positive emotions |
| Early childhood: | social interactions, complex play, exploring together |
| Middle childhood: | develop trust and loyalty; usually same gender |
| Early adolescence: | more intense and involve self-disclosure |
| Late adolescence: | give emotional support, solve problems together |
| Social Groups | Larger groups who regularly socialize • develop a common culture and socialize one another to follow group norms • Group members influence students more strongly in some areas of life than others and develop a sense of unity • Dominance hierarchies |
| Cliques: | groups of 3–9 friends of same gender; rigid and exclusive |
| Crowds: | larger groups based on reputations |
| • Subcultures: | group that resists the dominant culture • Hip-hop, punks, goths, pro-ana, gangs, emergent fads/movements |
| Romantic Liaisons and Relationships | Dating Sexual intimacy Sexual orientation |
| Dating: | from a child’s fantasy to crushes, infatuation, and romance • Use social skills to build romantic relationships and fulfill needs for companionship, affection, security, and social status |
| Sexual intimacy: | usually in long-term romantic relationships • Sexual development is an individual matter and reflects the decisions of young people and the influences of their upbringing and beliefs |
| Sexual orientation: | heterosexual for most but not all Lesbian (women to women) Gay (men to men) Bisexual Pansexual Demisexual Genetic factors – monozygotic twins more similar in their sexual orientation and gender identity than are dizygotic twins |
| Fostering Productive Peer Relationships | • Set up situations in which students can enjoy interactions with one another • Teach students how to interact productively • Help children ease into social groups • Teach social skills and problem-solving strategies |
| • Minimize barriers to social interaction • Cultivate empathy for peers with disabilities • Be a backup system when peer relationships aren’t going well • Reach out to children with little experience with peers | |
| • Provide the specific support that rejected children need most • Accept the legitimacy of romantic preoccupations • Be supportive when young people are dissolving romantic relationships | |
| • Explain what sexual harassment is and why it must be prohibited • Advise young people about human sexuality • Protect the rights of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender youth • Make appropriate referrals when necessary | |
| Stage-school fit | match between students’ age-related needs in learning academically, relating to others, feeling connected, developing a sense of self, and acting with self-control School as an inclusive community—a place of belonging • Integrate inclusion and equity; h |
| Classroom climate: | warm, affectionate atmosphere • Teachers care about students • Students feel safe and are encouraged to share their perspectives • Teachers use an authoritative approach, provide structure, guide students toward shared goals, and implement fun routines |
| School traditions: | encourage everyone to work together • Solicit students’ ideas • Engage students as helpers • Emphasize prosocial values • Publicly recognize student contributions • Address unmet needs • Create schoolwide traditions (fun) |
| Instructional methods—academic skills | • Mentor students in supportive and developmentally sensitive manner • Use instructional strategies that encourage learning |
| Skilled and sensitive interactions | • Associated with academic learning, prosocial behavior, and involvement • Teachers need to seek guidance to support students who are challenging |
| • A well-run classroom | • An organized school gives students many opportunities to concentrate • Minimize disruptions; provide choices within reasonable boundaries • Redirect students when they stray from expectations |
| School values: clearly communicate expectations | • Tell children about desired behaviors and rules • Ask children about their perceptions of classroom rules • Offer extra help to students who find it difficult to recognize expectations for school |
| Teachers’ expectations about abilities of individual students | • Avoid underestimating student abilities based on child’s appearance, behavior, family income, or skin color • Self-fulfilling prophecy: student achieves according to teacher expectations |
| Communicating high expectations | • Learn more about students’ backgrounds • Collaborate with colleagues to maximize children’s success |
| Elementary schools | • Children must adjust to social environment • Reassure and form positive relationships with studnets • Especially important are efforts to assist children who lack grade-level academic knowledge, social skills, and self-control |
| Secondary schools | • Students must adjust to many changes • Larger schools, more students, less-personal relationships with teachers, classes more competitive and less individualized • Greater responsibility for own learning and increased rigor |
| Effects of society’s institutions for children and adolescents | |
| Child care: varying levels of standards | • Advantages of high-quality care with structural and process measures • Advancements in cognitive, linguistic, literacy, and social skills • Increased aggression for young children in child care for long hours |
| • After-school programs and extracurricular activities | • Not every parent access to affordable care • Features of well-designed, effective after-school programs:many activities,authentic activities,enrichment,positive relationships,emotional support,diversity • Part-time jobs:beneficial if limited hours |
| Interactive Technologies | Pros: outlets for expression; ways to gain insights into self and others • Concerns: spending too much time; bad communication habits; risks (public rebuke online and being manipulated by adult predators) |
| Watching television, movies, and video clips | • Educational value: vocabulary, literacy skills, scientific concepts • Concerns: excessive violence, graphic scenes, too much time spent |
| Playing interactive games | • Potential to be instructional and motivating and provide practice • Concerns: time-consuming habit; supplants healthful social/physical activities |
| Using digital technologies at school | • Encourage children to express themselves creatively • Select technologies that meet instructional objectives • Use video segments that illustrate elusive concepts • Select technologies based on students’ age-typical abilities/interests |
| • Teach critical analysis of information on internet, television, and film • Teach students to manage their use of digital media such that they remain safe, healthy, considerate citizens | |
| • Make advanced technology available to children with limited access • Discourage students from using technologies for aggressive purposes • Encourage parents to monitor children’s use of the internet and television |
Created by:
natalieeash