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exam 3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Mental representation | Internal cognitive symbol that stands for objects |
| Concept | A mental grouping of similar objects |
| Prototype | The most typical or ideal example of a concept |
| Schema | Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or sequence of events |
| Algorithm | A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem |
| Heuristic | A mental shortcut or rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows quick decisions but may lead to errors |
| Functional fixedness | A tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions |
| Mental set | A tendency to approach problems in a particular way because that method worked previously |
| Insight | Sudden realization of a solution to a problem |
| System 1 thinking | Fast |
| System 2 thinking | Slow |
| Availability heuristic | Judging the likelihood of things based on how easily examples come to mind |
| Representativeness heuristic | Judging the probability of things based on how well they seem to represent a prototype |
| Anchoring bias | Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions |
| Intuitive thinking | Making decisions based on gut feelings or “automatic” judgments |
| Affective forecasting | Predicting how one will feel in the future about a specific event |
| Confirmation bias | The tendency to search for |
| Framing effect | Decisions are influenced by how information is presented (e.g. |
| Overconfidence | Being more confident in one’s judgments or knowledge than is objectively justified |
| Phoneme | The smallest unit of sound in a spoken language |
| Morpheme | The smallest unit of meaning in a language |
| Syntax | The system of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences |
| Semantics | The meaning of words and sentences |
| Pragmatics | The ways in which context contributes to meaning in language |
| Linguistic relativity (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) | The idea that the structure of a language influences how its speakers perceive the world |
| General intelligence (g) | A general factor underlying performance on a variety of cognitive tasks |
| Multiple intelligences | Theory that intelligence is not a single general ability |
| Fluid intelligence | The capacity to solve novel problems |
| Crystallized intelligence | Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills |
| Emotional intelligence | The ability to perceive |
| IQ (Intelligence Quotient) | A standardized measure of intelligence based on population norms |
| Reliability (of a test) | The consistency of a psychological test or measure |
| Validity (of a test) | The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure |
| Stereotype threat | The risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s group |
| Developmental psychology | The study of how people grow and change over the lifespan |
| Nature vs. nurture | The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to development |
| Critical period | A specific time during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned |
| Attachment | The emotional bond between a child and their caregiver |
| Secure attachment | A healthy attachment style characterized by distress when separated and joy when reunited |
| Insecure attachment | Attachment style marked by anxiety or avoidance of closeness |
| Piaget’s stages of cognitive development | Developmental stages including Sensorimotor |
| Assimilation | Integrating new experiences into existing schemas |
| Accommodation | Changing schemas to incorporate new information |
| Object permanence | Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen |
| Egocentrism | Difficulty in seeing the world from another’s perspective |
| Conservation | Understanding that quantity stays the same even when its shape changes |
| Theory of mind | The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others |
| Moral development | The process by which children develop proper attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society |
| Erikson’s psychosocial stages | Eight developmental stages from infancy to late adulthood |
| Identity vs. role confusion | Erikson’s stage in adolescence where individuals explore and form their identity |
| Social learning theory | The theory that people learn behaviors through observation |
| Temperament | A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity |
| Personality | A pattern of enduring |
| Unconscious | Part of the mind that lies outside the range of ordinary awareness |
| Id | The part of personality that consists of unconscious |
| Ego | The rational component of personality that mediates between the id |
| Superego | The moral component of personality |
| Defense mechanism | Unconscious mental processes used to protect the ego from anxiety |
| Repression | A defense mechanism that removes anxiety-causing thoughts from consciousness |
| Regression | A defense mechanism in which the ego reverts to an earlier stage of development |
| Reaction formation | A defense mechanism in which a person behaves in a way opposite to their true feelings |
| Projection | Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else |
| Rationalization | Justifying one’s behaviors or feelings with socially acceptable reasons |
| Sublimation | Transforming unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors |
| Psychosexual stages | Freud’s stages of personality development (oral |
| Oedipus complex | Freudian idea that boys unconsciously desire their mother and fear their father |
| Collective unconscious | Jung’s concept of a shared |
| Archetype | Universal |
| Trait theory | Theoretical approach that views personality as composed of broad |
| Big Five personality traits | Five major dimensions of personality: openness |
| Self-actualization | In humanistic theory |
| Locus of control | A person’s belief about how much control they have over the outcomes in their life |
| Self-esteem | A person’s overall sense of self-worth |
| Self-efficacy | Belief in one’s own ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task |
| Psychological disorder | A syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in a person’s cognition |
| DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) | The standard classification of mental disorders used by mental health professionals |
| Harmful dysfunction | A view that a behavior is disordered if it is harmful and results from failure of a mental mechanism |
| Anxiety disorder | Class of psychological disorders characterized by excessive fear or anxiety |
| Mood disorder | Psychological disorder characterized by mood swings or persistent low mood |
| Major depressive disorder | A mood disorder marked by prolonged periods of deep sadness or hopelessness |
| Bipolar disorder | A mood disorder involving periods of depression and mania |
| Schizophrenia | A severe psychological disorder characterized by distortions in thinking |
| Delusion | A false belief held despite strong contradictory evidence |
| Hallucination | A sensory perception without external stimulus |
| Personality disorder | Enduring |
| Antisocial personality disorder | Disregard for others’ rights |
| Borderline personality disorder | Instability in relationships |
| Cluster A personality disorders | Odd or eccentric behaviors (paranoid |
| Cluster B personality disorders | Dramatic |
| Cluster C personality disorders | Anxious or fearful behaviors (avoidant |
| Dissociative disorder | Disorder involving disruptions in identity |
| Dissociative identity disorder | Alternating between two or more distinct identities |
| Stigma | Negative attitudes or discrimination against people with psychological disorders |
| Psychotherapy | Treatment involving psychological techniques to help someone overcome difficulties |
| Medication (psychotropic) | Drugs used to treat psychological disorders by affecting brain chemistry |
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