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PSYC Test 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Characteristics of Wakefulness | high frequency and low amplitude brain waves |
| Characteristics of Drowsiness/Relaxation | more alpha frequencies (w/ high freq and low amp) |
| Characteristics of Stage 1 | appearance of theta waves |
| Characteristics of Stage 2 | appearance of sleep spindles and K complexes |
| Characteristics of Stage 3 | slow waves, low frequency, and high amp (slow-wave sleep) |
| Characteristics of REM | high frequencies and low amplitude |
| Description of regular cycle of sleep | length of one cycle is 90-100 min, 4-5 cycles, alternate between NREM and REM |
| Characteristics of NREM | 80% of sleep, includes 3 stages(Stage 1-3), decreased HR and RR, no memorable dreams |
| Characteristics of REM | 20% of sleep, consists of one stage (REM is in Stage 1), muscles are paralyzed |
| What triggers muscle paralysis during REM? | acetyl-cholinergic neurons in pons become more active just before REM and inhibits muscle movement |
| What brain region promotes sleep? | ventrolateral preoptic nucleus in hypothalamus |
| What brain region promotes wakefulness and alertness? | locus coeruleus, raphe nucleus, tuberomammillary nucleus (arousal networks) |
| Characteristics of Circadian rhythm? | influences sleep-wake cycles and is generated internally and reset by external stimuli (like light) |
| Which brain region is influenced by light? | suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) |
| What gland produces melatonin? | pineal gland |
| Theories of sleep | restorative, survival advantage, simulate rare situations, help process information |
| Characteristics of short-term sleep deprivation | irritability and difficulty maintaining attention |
| Characteristics of long-term sleep deprivation | microsleeps |
| Characteristics of chronic sleep deprivation | affects health, stress levels, and can cause heart disease |
| Why is the theory that sleep helps process information the best? | Sleep is essential for learning and memory and reactivation of memories during sleep can help with long-term encoding |
| Sleep disorders | insomnia, hypersomnia, parasomnia |
| Wernicke's aphasia | receptive aphasia; issues comprehending language |
| Location of Wernicke's area | superior temporal gyrus |
| Broca's aphasia | expressive aphasia; inability to produce language but NOT motor impairment |
| Location of Broca's area | inferior frontal gyrus |
| Conduction aphasia | inability to repeat words and can be caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus (which links Wernicke's and Broca's area) |
| Non-core language areas | speech perception, motor production areas and reading/writing areas |
| Characteristics of working memory | holds accessible info, lasts for a short time, limited capacity of 7 items, includes phonological loops and visuospatial sketchpad |
| Characteristics of long-term memory | stores large quantities of info for long time, contains implicit and explicit memory |
| Implicit memory | priming, procedural memory, associative learning, non-associative learning |
| Explicit memory | episodic and semantic memory |
| Which brain area stores priming info? | the neocortex |
| Which brain area stores procedural memory? | stored in the striatum of basal ganglia |
| Which brain area stores associative learning info? | amygdala (for emotional responses) and cerebellum (for skeletal musculature responses) |
| Where is non-associative learning info stored? | reflex pathways |
| Which brain area stores episodic and semantic memory? | medial temporal lobe (mainly hippocampus) |
| Purpose of the anterior hippocampus | object recognition memory and higher order info ( and emotional memory) |
| Purpose of the posterior hippocampus | spatial memory and lower-order info |
| Purpose of amygdala | important for emotional memories |
| Declarative theory of hippocampal function | hippocampus is crucial for new declarative/explicit memory |
| Multiple-trace theory of hippocampal function | hippocampus is crucial for new and old declarative/explicit memories |
| Dual-process theory of hippocampal functon | hippocampus is crucial for recalling event context |
| Relational theory of hippocampal function | hippocampus stores relations between events |
| Cognitive map theory of hippocampal function | hippocampus stores maps of space |
| Spatial memory | Place cells and grid cells in posterior hippocampus build spatial cognitive maps |
| Prospection | how we imagine future events |
| Brain structures important for recollection and prospection | medial prefrontal cortex, inferior parietal lobules, posterior cingulate and precuneus, and medial temporal lobe |
| Confabulation | creating an alternate version of the past and acting as if it were true; occurs when prompted for more details than can be remembered |
| Damage to which brain areas lead to spontaneous confabulations | medial orbitofrontal and prefrontal cortex (sometimes thalamus and hypothalamus) |
| Schacter's sins of memory | Misattribution (wrong source), suggestibility (implanted info distorts memory), and bias (current knowledge distorts past) |
| What did Hebb hypothesis about? | experience-dependent plasticity (Hebbian learning) |
| Example of experience-dependent plasticity | Long term potentiation |
| Mechanism of LTP | high frequency stimulation; active NMDA receptors of the postsynaptic neuron cause an influx of Ca2+ which activates enzymes that phosphorylate AMPA receptors and make them more responsive to glutamate and insert new AMPA receptors into the membrane |
| Long term depression | no response of post-synaptic cell to repeated input |
| Mechanism of LTD | a different signaling cascade results in AMPA receptors reducing at the synapse and the post-synaptic neuron becomes less receptive to glutamate |
| Consolidation | move memories from short-term to long term storage and occurs in the hippocampus |
| Which brain region is long term memory stored? | distributed across the cerebral cortex |
| Homo economicus | theoretical person who always makes rational decisions and maximizes utility |
| Prospect theory | assumes individuals make decisions based on expectations of loss or gain |
| What does a utility curve illustrate? | people will perceive the pain of a loss more than the pleasure of an equivalent gain |
| Framing effect | more likely to pick an option depending on how it is set up (in losses or gains) |
| Endowment effect | demanding a higher price to sell an object than would be paid for; ownership endows object w/ greater value |
| Delay discounting | the tendency to value immediate rewards more than larger delayed rewards (there is a reduction of value of reward w/ time) |
| Which brain areas are involved with all decisions (regardless of delaying)? | dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, supplementary motor area, presupplementary motor area, lateral orbitofrontal cortex |
| Which brain area is associated with framing effect? | Amygdala (more active for sure options when question is framed in gains and for risky option when question is framed as a loss) |
| Which brain area is associated with the calculation of value? | ventral striatum and ventromedial prefrontal cortex |
| Which brain area is associated with loss aversion? | anterior insula |
| Which brain area is associated with the size of the endowment effect? | anterior insula |
| Which brain area is associated with risk-taking? | ventral striatum and ventromedial prefrontal cortex |
| Which brain area is associated with risk aversion? | anterior insula |
| Which brain area is important for suppressing irrational decisions? | dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex |
| Which brain area has increased activity when decision making resembles H. sapiens? | medial area |
| Intertemporal choice paradigms | subjects assign value to rewards that occur at different times (delay discounting is part of intertemporal choice) |
| Which brain areas are more active when choosing smaller, sooner rewards? | medial areas (medial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate gyrus) |
| Which brain areas are more involved when choosing larger, later rewards? | lateral areas |
| What input does the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) receive and where does it project this info? | all sensory modalities and projects throughout the brain |
| What input does the amygdala receive and where does it project this information? | sensory input and projects to the orbitofrontal cortex |
| What other roles does the orbitofrontal cortex have? | assembles info and assigns subjective value |
| Which brain areas use external sensory information to predict future events? | lateral areas (including motor and lateral prefrontal areas) |
| Which brain area is associated with value based on internal factors? | ventromedial prefrontal cortex |
| Which brain area is associated with reflection on long-term goals? | medial frontopolar cortex |
| Which brain region is involved in deciding whether to accept or reject an offer? | prefrontal cortex |
| Which brain area is involved in choosing between different types of task? | dorsal medial prefrontal |
| Which brain area is involved in choices specified by an external cue? | dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |
| Which brain areas are more active during attempt to avoid harming others? | medial areas |
| Which brain areas are more active during attempts to do greatest good? | lateral areas |
| Which brain area is involved in switching strategies? | dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (changes to its functional connectivity) |
| Increased functional connectivity of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex with the amygdala and insula are linked to... | minimizing losses |
| Increased functional connectivity of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex linked to | maximizing gains |
| Emotion-modulating is done by | orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) |
| Goal-tracking is done by | frontopolar cortex |
| Plan-selecting is done by | dorsomedial prefrontal cortex |
| Which neurotransmitters are important for decision making? | dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine |
| Discrete Emotion theory | emotions signal internal state to others and basic emotions include fear, anger, surprise, joy, sadness, and disgust |
| James-Lange theory of emotion | physiological reaction in body causes emotion; fight or flight system reacts very rapidly to stimuli (bottom-up theory: stimuli detected by PNS and transmitted to brain) |
| Cannon-bard theory of emotion | (top-down theory: information about emotion spreads from brain to body) thalamus relays sensory info to cortex and hypothalamus and cortical pathways result in perception of emotion and hypothalamic pathways coordinate emotional response within body |
| Two factor theories | emotions do not need to be either top-down or bottom up and could involve some combination of both theories |
| Schacter-Singer theory of emotion | both visceral response to stimulus and cognitive evaluation of stimulus contribute to emotion |
| Three pathways that hypothalamus can affect internal state | autonomic output pathway, neuroendocrine pathway, and motivational pathway |
| Outputs from amygdala | down to brainstem and spinal cord, hypothalamic nuclei, and up to striatum and cortex |
| Damage to amygdala | impacts behavior and emotions and can have difficulty learning and expressing fear |
| Amygdala monitors... | external environment (much of its input is from the outside world) |
| What does the the ventral striatum do? | represent reward value |
| What does the anterior insula do? | represents complex sensations associated with emotional states (anger, sadness, elation, disgust, sexual arousal, anxiety) |
| what does the posterior insula do? | represents basic visceral sensations (pain, temp, fatigue, pressure, tension, itch) |
| What does the cingulate cortex do? | communicates with ANS, brainstem, amygdala, hippocampus, etc. |
| What brain area is the generator of the gut feeling? | ventromedial prefrontal cortex |
| Reappraisal | adjustment of emotional response based on context |
| What is reappraisal associated with? | changes in the prefrontal cortex and anterior insula activity and changes in connectivity between different regions |
| what is the role of serotonin? | regulating mood |
| What is the role of norepinephrine? | similar to serotonin with regulating mood |
| what is the role of GABA? | the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and can be used to decrease excitability (and anxiety) |
| Motivation | a state that drives goal-related behavior (allows brain to set priorities) |
| Allostasis | adaptation to environmental changes |
| Short term allostasis | prepares body for challenges |
| Long term allostasis | harms body, suppresses immune system, and leads to metabolic changes |
| Nigrostriatal pathway | important for motor control (substantianigra to striatum) |
| Mesocortical pathway | (ventral tegmental area to prefrontal cortex) important for cognition |
| Mesolimbic pathway | (ventral tegmental area to limbic areas) sometimes referred to as reward pathways |
| Primary rewards affect | homeostasis directly |
| Secondary rewards are associated with | primary rewards |
| Prediction error | discrepancy between what is expected and what actually occurs (can be positive or negative) |
| What do opioids do? | relieve pain and produce euphoria |
| 4 types of opioid receptors | Mu, Kappa, Delta, Nociceptin |
| Mu receptor | important for analgesia and euphoria |
| Kappa receptor | produce unpleasant reactions to opiates |
| Delta and nociceptin receptors | not well understood |
| Opioids increase... | reward value of naturally-occurring rewards |
| Addiction | an illness of motivation |
| Which brain areas are important in addiction? | neurons of the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens |
Created by:
AENI814