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psych
exam 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| social cognitive theory | explains how people learn behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions through observing others, interacting with their environment, and reflecting on their own actions. rooted in behavioral/learning theory. |
| How does social cognitive theory differ from other personality theories? | it draws from all other fields of psych. |
| main tenets of social cognitive theory | social origins of behavior. control over our behavior. thought processes happening. universal tendencies make individual differences and uniqueness we learn complex behaviors even if not rewarded for them Development happens throughout the lifespan. |
| social cognitive view of the person | we use language to reason about the world. we contemplate the present but also consider the past and future. we can self-reflect. Humans are active agents who shape their own behavior (people think, interpret, plan, and regulate themselves) |
| structure of social cog theory | competencies and skills expectancies and beliefs behavioral standards personal goals |
| competencies and skills | We all have slightly different personalities: some things are common, and distinct things, which might be driven by competencies and skills. two types: declarative and procedural knowledge |
| declarative knowledge | stated in words |
| procedural knowledge | cognitive and behavioral capabilities |
| skills are context specific | different contexts present different challenges that require different competencies. skills are acquired through social interaction and observations, skill level can be changed. |
| expectancies and beliefs | Beliefs are about how we think things are right now, and expectations are about what we think things will be like in the future. |
| self expectancy | how we see ourselves handling certain situations, such as stress management. We might develop different expectations depending on our prior experiences, and these will affect how we perceive situations. |
| perceived self-efficacy | our perception of our own capabilities. important for our sense of achievement and overall well-being. If you have positive expectations about yourself, you are more likely to persist, attempt challenging tasks, and approach situations more rationally. |
| high self efficacy | If you have positive expectations about yourself, you are more likely to persist, attempt challenging tasks, and approach situations more rationally. |
| low self efficacy | If you have low self-efficacy, you might miss out on opportunities, give up more easily, think less analytically, and be less rational. |
| self efficacy vs self esteem | very different. self-esteem is broader and relates to our general sense of self-worth across different areas of life, while self-efficacy is more specific to certain situations or domains. |
| self efficacy impacts | selection effort, persistance, preformance emotion coping |
| selection | self efficacy beliefs influence the goals individuals select |
| effort, persistance, and performance | higher self efficacy beliefs associated with greater efforts and persistance, and better performance |
| emotion | people with higher self efficacy beliefs approach tasks with better moods |
| coping | higher self efficacy beliefs associated with better stress management |
| goal | a mental representation of the aim of an action or course of actions. Goals are inherently tied to the human ability to think about the future. They help motivate and direct our behavior and foster a sense of self-control |
| how are goals organized | organized in a hierarchical system Some goals are harder than others and can also be organized along a timeline. Goals are closely tied to expectations: they are connected to how much we believe in our ability to reach them. |
| standard | a criterion for judging the goodness or worth of a person thing or event |
| evaluative standards | how we acquire criteria for evaluating events and how these evaluations influence our emotions and actions. personal standards related to the self strongly influence motivation and performance |
| self evaluative reactions | the satisfaction or dissatisfaction we feel when we meet or dont meet our own standards |
| self reinforcing | we reward or punish ourselves |
| disengaging from our standards | to justify immoral behavior. For example, if you have a standard not to lie or cheat, you might still justify cheating by saying that “everybody does it.” |
| self discrepancy | the gap between your actual self and your internal standards |
| ideal vs ought self | ideal =The person you want to become (goals, aspirations) ought = The person you feel you should be to avoid negative consequences (responsibilities, duties) |
| promotion vs prevention approach | People in a promotion focus aim to move toward their ideal self (Focus on gains, improvements, and opportunities). People in a prevention focus aim to meet the ought self , focus on preventing a negative outcome (Focus on safety and being responsible). |
| entity theory | Abilities are fixed, stable, and cannot be improved much. (“You’re either good at it or not.”) Performance goal (prove ability) |
| incremental theory | Abilities are malleable and can be developed through effort, strategy, and learning. Mastery goal (improve ability) |
| PROCESS two theoretical principles related to the dynamics of personality | reciprocal determinism (bandura) cognitive affective process system (CAPS) model (mischel and shoda) |
| reciprocal determinism | Bandura’s Model: Three factors influence personality and behavior. called reciprocal because they all influence each other. There is a constant, mutual flow of influence among these three factors: Behavior, Personality characteristics, and Environment. |
| CAPS model | -Cognitive and emotional personality variables are seen as being complexly connected -Different situational features activate different aspects of the overall personality system -Behavior varies from one situation to another. |
| Cognitive and emotional personality variables are seen as being complexly connected | thoughts about one's goals may trigger thoughts about skills, which in turn trigger thoughts about self efficacy, all of which may effect one's self evaluations and emotions |
| Different situational features activate different aspects of the overall personality system | a convo about politics may activate different aspects of the personality than a convo about sports |
| behavioral signatures | hard to measure personality because of situational differences. a study of what tended to trigger verbal aggression between two kids. the pattern appears the same. But, in certain situations, their verbal aggression was triggered differently. |
| observational learning or modeling | our cognitive capacities enable us to learn complex forms of behavior by observing a model preforming these behaviors. we form internal mental representations of the behavior we just saw |
| vicarious conditioning | learning emotional reactions by observing others |
| albert bandura | He is Canadian, the youngest and only kid. He was independent and self-motivated. He grew up in a town with limited opportunities and was encouraged to look for new experiences and opportunities outside of his hometown. Famous for the Bobo Doll experiment |
| bobo doll experiment | showed that children learn aggressive behavior by observing. Children watched an adult behave aggressively at an inflatable Bobo doll or behave calmly. When the children later went to play, those who saw the aggressive adult were likely to be aggressive |
| walter mischel | Austrian, fled to the U.S., grew up in New York. He was first a social worker, and he felt the psychoanalytic training was not good, particularly when working with people who had a history of trauma. Famous for the Marshmallow Test (a task-based study). |
| bobo doll criticisms | -the study used a small, convience based sample -contributed to false stereotypes that kids of color were more aggressive -the doll is designed to be hit, could have encouraged it more -generalization is limited since its a toy and not a real person |
| marshmellow test | children who engaged in effective cognitive strategies were more successful in delaying |
| delayed gratification | socially learned. s the ability to resist immediate rewards to achieve something greater later. Humans need strategies to stay focused and delay gratification. |
| self regulation | we motivate ourselves by setting personal goals, strategizing, and evaluating and modifying our behavior |
| schemas | Schemas help us interpret events based on the information we already have and how we internalize our experiences. They form complex networks of knowledge that are difficult to explain in words. |
| self-schemas | beliefs we have of ourselves, which are very developed, knowledge structures with information about our personal qualities. Self-schemas influence how we interpret interactions. They are unique to an individual; no two people share the exact same schema. |
| self schemas and motivation | Self-schemas strongly influence motivation, guiding the information we seek and the conclusions we draw about ourselves, others, and the world. Two primary self-based motives show how we protect our self-concept: self-enhancement and self-verification |
| self enhancment | – the motivation to maintain a positive view of oneself, sometimes overestimating positive attributes or comparing ourselves to others who are less successful. |
| self verification | the motivation to keep a consistent view of oneself, which is not alway positive. People seek info that aligns with their self-perception, even if negative, and reject info that challenges it. Self-verification can be good and bad at times |
| learning goals | goal is to learn something and increase ability and achievement |
| performance goal | goal is to perform well and receive positive evaluation |
| research about goal types | for individuals with low self-efficacy, setting a performance goal can negatively impact performance. Research shows that learning goals can improve self-efficacy because they are not outcome-dependent. |
| growth mindset | carol dweck if you believe emotions or abilities are malleable and controllable |
| working self concept | the temporary, situation-specific version of yourself that is currently guiding your thoughts, feelings, and behavior. |
| limitation of social cognitive theory | -Structural components of the theory aren’t always distinct from dynamics. -limited tools, makes it hard to create objective measures, standardized questions -theory has not fully explained how personality is sustained across situations over time |
| clinical applications of social cog theory | 1. no one unified clinical social cog theory 2. cognitions influence feelings/behavior 3. psychopathology arises from distorted/ maladaptive thinking 4. distorted thoughts lead to problematic emotions/behaviors, leading to further distorted thoughts |
| Two main clinical therapeutic approaches rooted in social cognitive theories: | Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (Beck) Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) – Ellis |
| social cog perception of psycopathology | Psychopathology can be understood as distorted or maladaptive thinking that can lead to psychopathology. |
| Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) | Ellis A primary goal is helping people understand that their cognitions are not always beneficial. People need to identify their distortions |
| All-or-nothing thinking | Seeing things in extremes; very little room for flexibility. |
| mental filter | Focusing only on negative aspects, ignoring the big picture. |
| jumping to conclusions | Mind reading or predicting the future without evidence. |
| overgeneralization | Applying one negative experience to all situations. |
| disqualifying the positive | Ignoring or dismissing positive events or achievements. |
| magnification/minimization | Exaggerating negatives or minimizing positives. |
| emotional reasoning | Believing emotions reflect reality, even if they don’t. |
| labeling | Assigning negative labels to oneself or situations, limiting flexibility. |
| should/must statements | Rigid language that reduces flexibility |
| personalization | Blaming yourself (or others) for things beyond your control; the goal is balance. |
| “I got a D on the first exam. The rest of the semester is ruined!” | can classified as Catastrophizing – Blowing things out of proportion; can involve overgeneralization as well. |
| “I know they won’t like me. I shouldn’t even bother going” | can be classified as Jumping to conclusions – either Mind reading or fortune telling. |
| “If she isn’t happy with me at all times, she doesn’t actually love me.” | it can classified as All-or-nothing thinking – Expecting constant love or approval, or none at all. |
| “I am so stupid. I should have known” | can be classified as Labeling and should/must – “I should have known.” |
| Cognitive Behavioral Therapy | BECK believed that psychological problems come from distorted, automatic thoughts—called cognitive distortions—that lead to negative emotions and unhelpful behaviors. |
| Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) | People don’t become upset because of events themselves— they become upset because of their beliefs about those events. Ellis emphasized that people hold irrational, rigid, unrealistic beliefs, and these beliefs create unnecessary emotional suffering. |
| general trait theory | the broad psychological approach that explains personality in terms of stable, measurable traits that differ from person to person. It focuses on what people are like—not why they became that way. |
| trait | consistent patterns of how people behave, think and feel |
| consistent trait | occurs with regularity, enduring, occurs across situations and dimensions of life |
| distinctive trait | characteristics that differ between people |
| traits - biologically | inherited biological factors are a primary determinant of individual differences in traits |
| broad predispositions of traits | All of us possess predispositions to respond or behave in a certain way. These are usually described as being high or low in a given trait (e.g., being high in introversion would potentially suggest that the person is low in extroversion). |
| organization of behavior and personality of traits | can be organized into a hierarchy specific responses > linked responses that become habits > groups of habits that become traits |
| Gordon Allport | (the father of trait theory) trait psychologist who rejected psychoanalytic and behavioral theories. He had a strengths-based approach to understanding personality. |
| gordon allport believed | According to him, we have functional autonomy, meaning that our motivations can change. There is no inherent or fixed need driving all behavior |
| cardinal traits | These are generalized, pervasive, and organize almost everything about a person’s life. Only a few people have cardinal traits. |
| central traits | These are enduring, cross-dimensional, and cross-situational. They shape behavior consistently but do not organize a person’s entire life as cardinal traits do. |
| secondary traits | These are the least generalized and least consistent. They may appear from time to time and do not show up across all dimensions or situations. |
| factor analysis | Most trait theories have used Factor Analysis (FA) to inform their theories. FA is a statistical tool that helps us summarize how a large number of variables might fit together, relate (or not relate) to one another, or co-occur. |
| Cattell | He had a background in chemistry, so he tried to find the basic components that make up someone’s personality. He differentiated levels of traits: surface or source. He came up with 16 personality traits. the spectrum ranges from reserved to outgoing. |
| surface traits | things that we look at, see, describe, and identify; they are directly observable. |
| source traits | internal, core traits that inform the surface traits |
| 3 different categories of source traits | ability (skills and abilities temperament (emotional life/style of behavior) dynamic (motivational traits) |
| describe | summarize a person’s behaviors across different situations and give us this personality schema. Different traits give us an average tendency |
| predict | relate how a person might behave, feel, or think in the future, as well as what they might need to do, based on what you know about someone’s personality. |
| explain | understand how and why personality develops. |
| Hans Eysenck | German who fled to England to escape the Nazis. He was influenced by FA and also studied behaviorism, but rejected psychoanalysis. His work had a biological focus, emphasizing the role of biology in personality. He came up w the 3 factors of personality. |
| 3 factor theory of personality | Eysenck came up with three “super factors”: Introversion–Extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism |
| Introversion–Extraversion | sociability, activity level, liveliness, excitability |
| Neuroticism | emotional stability vs instability anxiousness, depression, shyness, moodiness |
| psychoticism | agressiveness, lack of empathy, interpersonal coldness, antisocial behavioral tendencies |
| five factor theory | AKA OCEAN model, Big five most contemporary trait theory. The five-factor model was made using everyday language to generate traits. The OCEAN acronym represents the factors (i.e., Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) |
| openness | Curiosity, imagination, creativity, interest in new experiences. high: Creative, curious, likes new things. low: Prefers routine, practical, likes familiarity |
| contentiousness | Organization, reliability, self-discipline, goal-directed behavior. High: Organized, responsible, hard-working. Low: Disorganized, impulsive, goes with the flow. |
| extraversion | Sociability, energy, assertiveness, preference for stimulation. High: Outgoing, social, energetic. Low: Quiet, reserved, prefers alone time. |
| agreeableness | Compassion, cooperation, kindness, trust in others. High: Kind, cooperative, easy to get along with. Low: Blunt, competitive, less trusting. |
| Neuroticism | Emotional stability vs. emotional reactivity. High: Easily stressed, emotional, worries a lot. Low: Calm, stable, hard to upset. |
| Different perspectives within Five-Factor theory | McCrae and Costa argue that everyone has varying degrees of the traits, which are fully explained by biology, leaving little to no room for environmental influences (nurture). |
| Lexical Hypothesis | the idea of the ability to predict behavior is an important skill for survival. How do we get our needs met? How do we convince others to help us? How do we get something that may help us later? these require understanding of other people’s traits. |
| practical applications - vocational/career | can predict: (job performance, satisfaction, compatibility) high in E: social and enterprising occupations high in O: artistic and investigative occupations high in C: consistent performance across occupations |
| practical applications - health | can predict: -Medication adherence -Risk-taking behaviors -Physical activity levels -Stress resilience |
| practical applications - diagnosis/treatment | can predict: Therapy style (structured vs. insight-based) Pace of treatment Amount of support needed Best types of interventions |
| NEO Personality Inventory | A common (and $$) inventory used to assess an someone's personality based on the OCEAN theory. First developed by Costa and McCrae, its very correlated with other trait inventories. Each Big 5 factor is broken down into facets (small parts of the traits). |
| six factor model | Some believe that we missed a factor: Honesty vs humility. These aspects (truthful vs disloyal) don't clearly fall under any of the 5 factors. So, there's a theory that a 6-factor model would better capture traits that aren't in the 5-Factor model. |
| Cross-cultural studies of the trait theory | Most studies and theories of big-five theory are based and developed in English-speaking cultures. However, when it is explored in other cultures, instead of culturally adapting, it is necessary to use everyday natural language to describe personality. |
| reinforcement sensitivity theory | theorists explain all traits are driven biologically. this is a top-down approach: it doesn't explain how a person becomes how they are. RST proposes a bottom-up approach, that traits are possessed by the person and have a causal force that contributes. |
| BAS (Behavioral Approach System) | This system is responsive to pleasurable stimuli that fulfill needs. it produces the tendency to get rewards in the environment. High BAS activity is associated with extraversion and openness, explaining why a person might be outgoing. |
| FFFS (Fight-Flight-Freeze System) | Responsive to aversive or potentially harmful stimuli. High FFFS activity is associated with neuroticism. |
| BIS (Behavioral Inhibition System) | Resolves goal conflicts, balancing the pursuit of rewards with caution. A well-developed BIS system is associated with conscientiousness. |
Created by:
ago24