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BIOL 207 Final Exam
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the first line of defense? | Anatomical Structures |
| What do anatomical structures do in terms of microbial defense? | Barriers to invasion entry and limits access to internal tissue. |
| Why is the first line of defense not considered a true immune response? | It does not recognize foreign substances. |
| What is the second line of defense? | General Defense |
| What do general defenses do in terms of microbial defense? | Internalized systems of protective cells and liquids. |
| What are two examples of general defenses? | Inflammation and phagocytosis. |
| What is the third line of defense? | Specific Defense |
| What do specific defenses do in terms of microbial defense? | Acquired when a foreign body meets lymphocytes, provides long-term immunity, and makes survival of microbes unlikely. |
| Examples of First Line of Defense | Physical barriers, chemical barriers, and genetic components. |
| Examples of Second Line of Defense | Phagocytosis, inflammation, fever, and antimicrobial proteins. |
| Examples of Third Line of Defense | Active infection and passive-maternal antibodies. |
| Physical Barrier of Microbes | Coughing to eject irritants in throat. |
| Lysosome | Nonspecific chemical defense -- an enzyme that is found in tears and saliva that hydrolyzes peptidoglycan bacteria. |
| Examples of Lysosome | HCL in stomach, semen, and vagina. |
| What is necessary for sufficient protection against microbes? | Specific Immune Responses |
| Responsibilities of the Immune System | Surveillance of the body, recognition of foreign material, and destruction of entities deemed to be foreign. |
| White Blood Cells | Recognize body cells (self), differentiate them from foreign materials (non-self). |
| Markers | Molecules on cell surfaces, consist of proteins and sugars, and marks what should be destructed. |
| Components of the Immune System | The lymphatic system, the bloodstream, and the extracellular fluid. |
| Three Responsibilities of the Lymphatic System | Provides route for return of extracellular fluid to the circulatory system, act as a 'drain off' system for inflammatory response, and render surveillance and protection against foreign bodies through systems of lymphocytes, phagocytes, and antibodies. |
| Lymphoid Organs | Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Tonsils, and Lymphoid Tissue of Mucosa of the Gut (MALT). |
| Bone Marrow | Site for blood cells and lymphocyte development and maturation. |
| Thymus | Site for maturation of T lymphocytes. |
| Lymph Nodes | Cleaning of lymph via macrophages. |
| Spleen | Filters old RBCs and pathogens from the blood for phagocytosis by macrophages. |
| Blood Cells | Hematopoiesis and STEM Cells |
| Hematopoiesis | Production of Blood Cells |
| STEM Cells | Primary precursors of new blood cells maintained in bone marrow. |
| What do STEM cells create? | Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, and Platelets |
| White Blood Cells | Programmed to develop into several secondary cell lines, these are primarily responsible for immune function. |
| Innate Immunity | Generalized and nonspecific defenses that support and interact with specific immune responses. |
| Examples of Innate Immunity | Phagocytosis, inflammation, fever, and antimicrobial proteins. |
| Functions of Phagocytosis | Survey tissue compartments and discover microbes, ingest/eliminate bad materials, and extract immunogenetic information. |
| Three Professional Phagocytes | Neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. |
| Neutrophils | General purpose phagocytes, react early to bacteria, high neutrophil = common sign of bacterial infection, and is the primary component of pus. |
| Monocytes | Macrophages when they migrate out of the bloodstream and into the tissues. |
| Resident Macrophages | Alveolar (lung) macrophages, Kupffer cells in liver, dendritic cells in skin, and macrophages in the spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow, kidney, bone, and brain. |
| Mechanisms of Phagocytic Recognition, Engulfment, and Killing | Chemotaxis, Ingestion, Phagolysosome Formation, Destruction, and Excretion. |
| Pathogen-Associated Molecular Pattern (PAMPs) | Signal molecules found on microbial surfaces that serve as red flags for phagocytes. |
| Bacterial PAMPs | Peptidoglycan and Lipopolysaccharide |
| Viral PAMPs | Double-Stranded RNA |
| Immune System Steps | Search, Recognize, and Destroy |
| Pattern Recognition Receptors | Found on phagocytesm dendritic cells, epithelial cells, and lymphocytes, recognize and bind PAMPs. Cells have these whether they have come across PAMPs or not. |
| Phagocytosis Steps | Chemotaxis via phagocyte, adhesion of bacteria, engulfment into phagocytic vacuole, phagosome, phago-lysosome formation, killing and destructing bacterial cells, and release of debris. |
| Five Inflammatory Responses | Rubor, calor, tumor, dolor, and loss of function. |
| Rubor | Redness caused by increase circulation in injured tissue. |
| Calor | Warmth caused by heat given off by increased blood flow. |
| Tumor | Swelling caused by fluid escaping into tissue. |
| Dolor | Pain caused by stimulation of nerves. |
| Factors that Elicit Inflammation | Trauma from infection, tissue injury, specific immune reactions, and some chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease. |
| Main Functions of Inflammation | Powerful defensive reactions, mobilize immune components to the injury site, and destroy microbes and prevent invasion. |
| Inflammatory Mediators | Cytokines |
| Cytokines | Small, signaling molecules that regulate inflammation. |
| Stages of Inflammation | Injury/Immediate Reactions, Vascular Reactions, Edema/Pus Formation, and Resolution/Scar Formation. |
| Injury/Immediate Reactions | Bacteria in wound, cells release chemical mediators, and vasoconstriction. |
| Vascular Reactions | Clotting, seepage of plasma and migration of white blood cells, vasodilation, and neutrophil. |
| Edema/Pus Formation | Scab, neutrophils, and pus. |
| Resolution/Scar Formation | Scarring, lymphocytes, and macrophages. |
| What two actions are involved in the deployment of different immune cells? | Diapediesis and Chemotaxis |
| Diapediesis | Migration of white blood cells out of blood vessels and into tissues. |
| Chemotaxis | Migration of cells in response to a specific chemical stimulus. |
| Fever | Abnormally elevated body temperature, universal symptom of infection. |
| Pyrogens | Substances that reset the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting. |
| Exogenous Pyrogens | The product of infectious agents. |
| Endogenous Pyrogens | Cells liberated during phagocytosis. |
| What are the benefits of fever? | Inhibit multiplication of temp-sensitive microorganisms, impedes the nutrition of pathogens by reducing the availability of iron, and speeds up hematopoiesis, phagocytosis, and specific immune reactions. |
| Adapted Immunity | When innate immunity fails, this steps up, and takes a few days to activate lasts long. |
| B and T Cells | Recognize antigens via receptors and are largely diverse. |
| B Cells | Provide antibody-mediated immunity, produced and matured in bone marrow, and are located in the lymph nodes and the spleen. |
| T Cells | Produced in bone marrow and matures in thymus, function in cell-mediated immunity against virus-infected cells and cancer cells, and can recognize antigens. |
| Examples of T Cells | Cytotoxic T which destroy foreign cells and Helper T which secrete cytokines that control immune response . |
| Parts of the Respiratory | Upper Tract and Lower Tract |
| Components of the Upper Respiratory Tract | Mouth, nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, epiglottis, and larynx. |
| Components of the Lower Respiratory Tract | Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. |
| What are Examples of the 1st Line of Defense of RT | Nasal hair, cilia, and mucus. |
| What are Examples of the 2nd Line of Defense of RT | Macrophages |
| What are Examples of the 3rd Line of Defense of RT | Pathogen-Specific Secretory IGA |
| Which tract is normal biota mainly found? | Upper Tract |
| What normal biota can be pathogenic? | Streptococcus pyogenes, haemophilus influenzae, streptococcus pneumoniae, neisseria meningitidis, staphylococcus aureus, and yeast. |
| Microbial Diseases of the Upper Respiratory Tract | Pharyngitis, rhinitis, sinusitis, otitis, and diphtheria. |
| Signs and Symptoms of Pharyngitis | Inflammation of the throat, swollen tonsils, and white pockets in throat. |
| Causes of Pharyngitis | Common Cold and Strep Throat |
| Characteristics of Streptococcus Pyogenes | Gram-positive coccus, forms capsules, facultative anaerobe, and catalase negative. |
| What are surface antigens of Streptococcus Pyogenes? | Lipoteichoic Acid, M Protein, and Hyaluronic Acid |
| What are extracellular toxins on Streptococcus Pyogenes? | Streptolysins |
| Scarlet Fever | Bacteriophage allows erythrogenic toxin production -- causes rash and high fever. |
| Rheumatic Fever | Reaction between Streptococcal M Protein and heart muscle. Occurs around three weeks after pharyngitis subsides. Causes damage to heart and joints. |
| Glomerulonephritis | Formulation of antigen-antibody complexes in the kidney glomeruli. This is characterized by nephritis. Examples: Toxic Shock Syndrome and Necrotizing Fasciitis |
| What is the only significant reservoir of Streptococcus Pyogenes? | Humans -- transmits via respiratory drops. |
| Treatment of Streptococcus Pyogenes | Penicillin, cephalexin, there is no vaccine. |
| Prevention of Streptococcus Pyogenes | Hand-Washing |
| Cause of Rhinitis | 200 Different Viruses |
| Types of Rhinitis | Rhinovirus, Coronavirus, and Adenovirus |
| Transmission of Rhinitis | Indirect Contact and Droplet Contact |
| Symptoms of Rhinitis | Sneezing and Scratchy Throat |
| Causes of Sinusitis | Various viruses, bacteria, and fungi. |
| Treatment of Sinusitis | Broad-spectrum antibiotics and antifungals. |
| Causes of Diphtheria | Corynebacterium Diptheriae |
| Characteristics of Corynebacterium Diptheriae | Non-spore forming, gram-positive, and club-shaped bacilli. |
| Transmission of Corynebacterium Diptheriae | Droplet, direct contact, and fomites. |
| Virulence Factor of Corynebacterium Diptheriae | Diphtheria Exotoxin |
| Diagnosis of Corynebacterium Diptheriae | Gray/Black Colonies |
| Symptoms of Corynebacterium Diptheriae | Sore throat with bull neck morphology. |
| Prevention of Corynebacterium Diptheriae | Diphtheria Toxoid Vaccine (DTAP) |
| Treatment of Corynebacterium Diptheriae | Antitoxin plus penicillin or erythromycin. |
| Signs/Symptoms of Influenza | Starts in URT, headache, chills, aches, fever, sore throat, and secondary infections. |
| Causative Agents of Influenza | Influenza A, B, and C Viruses |
| Antigenic Drift | Mutation of genes, small-scale changes in genomes, and produces most seasonal influenza strains. |
| Antigenic Shift | RNA exchange between different viruses, large-scale changes in genome, occurs in coinfection, and more likely to produce pandemic strains. |
| Virulence Factors of Influenza | Severe inflammation due to cytokine storm, hemagglutinin, and neuraminidase. |
| Prevention of Influenza | Vaccine |
| Transmission of Influenza | Droplets and Inhalation of Aerosols |
| Microbial Diseases of the Lower RT | Tuberculosis and Pneumonia |
| Primary Tuberculosis | Minimum infection dose is around 10 bacterial cells, bacteria multiply inside of macrophages intracellularly, tubercle formation in lungs, and T-cell action in tuberculin reactions. |
| Secondary Tuberculosis | Live bacteria can be dormant then reactivate. |
| Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis | Infection outside of the lungs (kidneys, etc.). usually occurs in immunosuppressed patients. |
| Causative Agents of Tuberculosis | Mycobacterium TB, acid-fast bacillus, mycolic acids, and cord factor. |
| Transmission of Tuberculosis | Droplets, "Infection of Poverty" |
| Susceptibility of Tuberculosis Influenced By | Inadequate nutrition, debilitation of immune system, and genetics. |
| Pneumonia | Inflammation leads to fluid filled alveoli, caused by viruses, bacteria, and fungi, which can be community-acquired or nosocomial. |
| Bacteria of Pneumonia | Streptococcus Pneumoniae |
| Viruses of Pneumonia | Hantavirus |
| Fungi of Pneumonia | Histoplasma Capsulatum |
| Pneumococcal Pneumonia | Most common cause of bacterial pneumonia. |
| Atypical Pneumonia | Caused by mycoplasma pneumoniae, transmitted via droplets, and lacks acute illness. |
| Nosocomial Pneumonia | Second most common nosocomial infection. |
| Causative Agents of Nosocomial Pneumonia | Polymicrobial Infection |
| Transmission of Nosocomial Pneumonia | Typically only reveals normal biota. |
| Treatment of Nosocomial Pneumonia | Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics |
| What body part is known as the haven for microbes? | Large Intestine |
| Bacteria Found in Large Intestine | Bacteroides, fusobacterium, bifidobacterium, lactobacillus, escherichia, and enterobacter. |
| Fungi found in Large Intestine | Candida, protozoans, and archaea. |
| Functions of Normal Biota in GI Tract | Helps with digestion, provides nutrients that we cannot provide, important for epithelial cell structure, teaches the immune system how to |
| What are GI Tract diseases caused by microorganisms that cause diarrhea? | Salmonella, shigella, E. Coli, clostridium difficile, vibrio cholerae, and rotavirus. |
| What are GI Tract diseases caused by microorganisms that cause food poisoning? | Staphylococcus aureus, bacillus cereus, clostridium perfringens, and helicobacter pylori (causes gastritis and gastric ulcers). |
| Types of Hepatitis Infections | Hep. A., Hep. E, Hep. B, and Hep. C. |
| What is the leading cause of child mortality? | Acute Diarrhea |
| Salmonella | Caused by salmonella enterica, associated with poultry, and goes from mild to severe. |
| E. Coli 0157:H7 | Most virulent strain, some patients develop hemolytic uremic syndrome, and an epidemic outbreak is most common. |
| Clostridium Difficile | Opportunistic organism, causes pseudomembranous colitis, common in hospitals, and can be cured by broad-spectrum antibiotics. |
| Primary Cause of Morbidity and Mortality from Diarrhea | Rotavirus |
| Rotavirus | 50% of all diarrhea cases caused by it, children are most at risk, and the treatment is fluid replacement and electrolytes. |
| Shigella and Shigellosis | Gram-negative, nonmotile, rod shaped, and produces Shiga toxin. |
| Signs of Shigellosis | Watery stool, fever, abdominal pain, and nausea and vomiting. |
| Dysentary | Stool contains blood and mucus. |
| Shiga Toxin | Enterotoxin by Shigella Dysenteriae |
| What does Shiga Toxin Impact | The GI Tract and damages mucosa and villi. |
| Symptoms and Effects of Shiga Toxin | High fever, hemolytic uremic syndrome, and is transmitted through the fecal-oral route. |
| Prevention of Shigella | Good Hygiene |
| Clostridium Perfringens Exotoxin | Gram-positive, sporulating, and commonly found in meat and fish. |
| Causative Agent of Gastritis and Gastric Ulcers | Helicobacter Pylori -- curved, motile, gram-negative, and rod shaped. |
| Who found helicobacter pylori? | J. Robin Warren and Barry Marshal |
| Symptoms of Gastritis | Sharp, burning pain in abdomen. |
| Symptoms of Gastric Ulcers | Lesions in mucosa of stomach. |
| How does helicobacter pylori cause ulcers? | It has strategy to avoid stomach acid, produces urease enzyme to breakdown urea, forms ammonia, causes large sores in stomach, causes acute pain and inflammation that can lead to stomach cancer. |
| Probable Transmission of Helicobacter Pylori | Food/Water |
| Hepatitis of the Liver | Inflammatory disease marked by necrosis of hepatocytes and disruption of liver architecture. |
| Jaundice | Yellow tinge in skin and eyes caused by bilirubin accumulation in blood and tissue. |
| Potential Causes of Hepatitis | Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, hepatitis A-E, autoimmune diseases, drug abuse, and alcohol abuse. |
| Hepatitis A and Hepatitis E | Single-stranded RNA viruses and both transmitted through fecal-oral route. |
| Hepatitis A | "Infectious Hepatitis" |
| Symptoms of Hep A | Initially, anorexia, vomiting, and low-grade fever. Eventually, liver enlarges causing jaundice like symptoms. |
| Immunity of Hep A | Life-Long Immunity |
| Forms of Hep B Viruses | HBsAg (Surface Antigens) and the complete virion "Dane Particles" |
| HBV Transmission | Contact with Bodily Fluid |
| Symptoms of HBV | Severe illness, some remain carriers, and jaundice symptoms. |
| Hep C | Cause cirrhosis and liver failure, silent epidemic, common among drug users. |
| Symptoms of Hep C | Asymptomatic for long periods of time and are the common cause of liver transplants. |
| Syphilis | Can progress through 3 stages if untreated. |
| Cause of Syphilis | Treponema Pallidum |
| Characteristics of Treponema Pallidum | Spiral Bacterium, no cell wall, moves via axial filaments, and is an obligate parasite. |
| Transmission of Syphilis | Human-only, sexual intercourse, penetrates skin through mucous membranes or wounds. |
| Stages of Syphilis | Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Congenital |
| Primary Syphillis | Chancre (painless, purple ulcer with raised margin), usually on genitals. |
| Secondary Syphilis | Fever, flu-like symptoms, swollen lymph nodes, loss of hair, and liver may be impacted. Most recover from this and remain in the latent stage. |
| Tertiary Syphilis | Affects skin and cardiovascular system along with the nervous system (can last from 6-40 years). |
| Congenital Syphilis | Spreads to fetus from mother, causes poor bone formation and meningitis. |
| Hutchinson's Triad | Consequence of congenital syphilis that leads to deafness, impacted vision, and peg-shaped teeth. |
| Treatment of Syphilis | Antibiotics like Penicillin |
| Gonorrhea | Infection of the urinary tract. |
| Causative Agent of Gonorrhea | Neisseria Gonorrhoea |
| Neisseria Gonorrhoea | Small, gram-negative diplococcus that is very fragile and susceptible to disinfectants. |
| Transmission of Neisseria Gonorrhoea | Person to Person |
| How does Neisseria Gonorrhoea Impact Females | Invades epithelial surfaces like the cervix and urethra. |
| How does Neisseria Gonorrhoea impact Males? | The organism invades the mucous membranes of the urethra. |
| Which sex are symptoms of Neisseria Gonorrhoea more acute? | Males -- can cause sterility. |
| Gonococcal Opthalmia | May cause blindness born of an infected mother. |
| What is the second most reported microbial disease in the US? | Gonorrhea |
| Control/Cure of Gonorrhea | Penicillin, no vaccine available. |
| Chlamydial Urethritis | Can be asymptomatic, obligate parasite. |
| Causative Agent of Chylamydial Urethritis | Chlamydia Trachonatis |
| Transmission of Chlamydia | Sexual Contact |
| Most Frequently Reported STD in USA | Chlamydia -- likely due to mandatory reporting |
| Diagnosis of Chlamydia | Fluorescent antibody test during pap smear. |
Created by:
kayleeswilson