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Ap Psych Mod 16-21
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| sensation | obtaining information via senses -Ex: using eyes to detect light and color |
| perception | -the process by which the brain organizes an interprets sensory information to regains events - Ex: recognizing that the shapes and colors you see form the image of a person |
| Bottom up processing | A perception method in which the brain interprets information that begins with raw sensory data from the environment. -The brain builds a perception from the ground up, without relying on prior knowledge or expectations. |
| Top-down processing | -A perception method in which the brain interprets information that begins with prior knowledge or experiences. -The brain uses what it already knows to organize and interpret incoming sensory data, |
| Selective Attention | Focusing on one specific stimulus while ignoring other distractions. |
| inattentional blindness | -failing to see visible object when our attention is directed somewhere else |
| Change blindness | failing to notice changes in your environment |
| prosopagnosia | face blindness -a disorder where someone can sense faces but cannot recognize or identify faces |
| Transduction | The process of converting sensory stimuli (like light, sound, or chemical signals) into neural impulses that the brain can understand. -occurs with all of our senses |
| Example of transduction | - the eyes convert light into the brain's electrochemical language |
| Psychophysics | studies the relationship between physical energy that we can detect and its effect on our psychological experiences |
| Absolute threshold | -the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time |
| Signal detection theory | -Predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus (signal) amid background noise. -says that detection is not fixed but depends on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness rather than a single absolute threshold. |
| Difference threshold | -The minimum difference between two stimuli required for a person to detect the difference 50% of the time. - we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (Jnd) |
| Just-Noticeable Difference (JND) | The smallest change in a stimulus that a person can detect 50% of the time. |
| subliminal stimuli. | A stimulus that is below a person’s absolute threshold, so it cannot be consciously detected. |
| Weber's law | for a person to perceive a difference between two stimuli the stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage not a constant amount -Ex: two lights must always differ from each other by 8% to be perceived as different |
| Sensory adaption | Reduced sensitivity to a stimulus after constant or prolonged exposure. |
| Cocktail Party Effect | The ability to focus on one specific stimulus (like a single voice) while filtering out other background noise. |
| Connection between ADHD and selective attention | - if you have ADHD you have a problem with selective attention as you are unable to focus on one stimulus at a time |
| Flow | A mental state of complete focus, immersion, and enjoyment in an activity, where a person may lose track of time and self-consciousness. |
| Priming | -when exposure to a stimulus unconsciously influences a response to a different stimulus |
| Perceptual set | a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that effect down processing -makes us percieve one thing and not other after receiving stimuli |
| Schemas | A concept that organizes and interprets information based on prior knowledge and experience. |
| Extrasensory perception (ESP) | The claimed ability to perceive information without using the known five senses. -3 most common types: telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition |
| Telepathy | -Mind-to-mind communication -Mind-to-mind communication |
| Clairvoyance | Perceiving distant or unseen events without sensory input. -PERTAINS TO PRESENT |
| Precognition | Predicting or knowing the future before it happens. -PERTAINS TO FUTURE EVENTS |
| Psychokinesis / Telekinesis | Moving or influencing objects with the mind alone |
| Parapsychology | the study of paranormal phenomenons like Extrasensory perception (ESP) and Psychokinesis |
| pop out phenomenon | when stimuli are powerful, distinct and grab our attnetion |
| Electromagnetic energy | the type of energy of visible light that can be detected by the eyes. -light travels in waves and the shape of light waves influence what we see |
| Electromagnetic energy spectrum | it goes from being as short as gamma rays to as long as radio waves |
| wavelength | the distance from one wave peak to another -determines the hue (color) of light |
| frequency | how often each wave occurs in a cycle - used to determine sound pitch and vibration |
| amplitude | the height of a waves -determines a waves intensity |
| Intensity | -the amount of energy that a wave has - intensity influences brightness |
| Explain why we see objects as colors | - objects and reflect wavelengths of light -the reflected color of the light is what we perceive the color of the objects to be - objects don't make color but reflect it |
| Cornea | -the part of the eye that bends light to provide focus -clear outerlayer of the eye which covers the pupil and iris -light first enters here when the eye receives it |
| Pupil | - the adjustable opening in the center of the eye which light enters after the cornea |
| Iris | a muscle that dilates or constricts in response to light intensity -controls the size of the pupil opening -changes in response to cognitive and emotional states |
| Lens | the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus light to the retina |
| Retina | the light sensitive inner surface of the eye which lines the back of the eye and converts light into neural signals, which are sent to the brain to create vision -contains receptor rods and cones |
| Accommodation | -the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina |
| How does the eye and brain work together for sight | -the eye receives images that are upside down but your brain processes it as upright images |
| Rods | -retinal receptors that detect, black, white and gray and are sensitive to movement -necessary for peripheral vision and allow you to see in the dark (night vision) |
| Cones (red, blue, green) | the retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina that detect fine detail and color - function only in daylight or well-lit conditions (unresponsive in the dark) |
| Photoreceptors | Visual receptor cells—rods and cones—that convert light energy into neural signals. |
| Fovea | A small, central part of the retina that contains the highest concentration of cones and is responsible for sharp, detailed central vision. -used when reading since allows for highly focused vision |
| Optic nerve | the nerve that carries the neural impulses from the eye to the brain -a collection of ganglion cells |
| Blind spot | the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye since there are no photoreceptor cells (rods or cones) at this spot, so no visual information is detected. |
| trichromatic theory (three color theory) | -The theory that the retina has three types of cones : red, green, and blue. All other colors are perceived as combinations of these three colored cones |
| Color blindness | Occurs when one or more types of cones (red, green, or blue) do not function properly, resulting in a person only seeing colors with two cones instead of 3 |
| Dichromatism | A form of color blindness where a person has two functioning types of cones instead of three, |
| Monochromatism | A rare form of color blindness where a person has only one type of cone (or no functioning cones at all), so they see the world in shades of gray. |
| Opposing process theory | our perception of color is based on three opposing color pairs: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white -Ex: One cell is activated by red and inhibited by green, while another is activated by green and inhibited by red. |
| feature detectors | nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus such as shape, angle or movement |
| Parallel processing | processing many aspects of a problem at the same time - |
| What are the sub dimensions that the brain divides any visual scene into? | -motion, color, depth, and form -the brain combines these subdivisions in order to make perceptions |
| Nearsighted (myopic) | can see close objects but cannot see far object |
| Far sighted (hyper opic) | can see far objects but can't see near objects |
| Gestalt | an organized whole -emphasizes how we tend to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes |
| Figure ground | the organization of images to disguise objects from their background -same occurs for audio, you focus on one noise and everything else is background noise |
| Grouping | -the constant tendency to organize stimuli into groups -allows mind to create order and form wholeness |
| Three ways of grouping (grouping principles) | -Grouping by proximity -Grouping by continuity -Grouping by Closure |
| Grouping by proximity | -we group nearby figures together |
| Grouping by Continuity | -we perceive smooth continuous patterns instead of discontinued ones |
| Grouping by closure | we group to fill in gaps to create complete and whole objects |
| Depth perception | the ability to see objects in three-dimensions although images that strike the retina are in two-dimensions -this allows us to determine distance |
| Binocular cues | a depth cue that is sent ot the brain within individuals with two eyes -tells brain the depth and distance from nearby objects Ex: retinal dispaity and convergence |
| Retinal disparity | a binocular cue used for perceiving depth -the brain compares the retinal images from each eye to compare distance -the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object |
| Monocular cues | -depth cues that can be perceived with only 1 eye -help us judge distance |
| Monocular cues vs Binocular cues | -monocular cues need one eye and are for viewing objects that are further away - binocular cues need two eyes and are for viewing objects that are closer up |
| How does the brain recognize motion | -by assuming that object that shrink are moving away while objects that get bigger are getting closer |
| Stroboscopic Movement | Illusion of motion created by rapidly showing a series of still images. Example: Flipbook or animated cartoons — still pictures appear to move. |
| Phi phenomenon | the illusion of movement created lights blink on and off in quick succession, making it appear as though a single light is moving. |
| Perceptual constancy | perceiving objects as unchanging, having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size even as light and retinal images change |
| Color constancy | perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even if changing illumination (light) |
| Shape constancy | -we perceive the shape of familiar objects as constant when the images on our retina change |
| Size constancy | -we perceive an object as having an unchanging size even when our distance from the object varies |
| Relative size | Objects that appear smaller are perceived as farther away, and objects that appear larger are perceived as closer, assuming they are the same actual size. -monocular cue |
| Linear perspective | A monocular depth cue in which parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, giving a sense of depth. |
| Interposition | If one object blocks (overlaps) another, the blocked object is perceived as farther away. - monocular depth cue |
| Convergence | A binocular depth cue where your eyes turn inward more for close objects and less for far ones. -The amount of inward movement signals distance. |
| Parallel Processing | The brain’s ability to process multiple aspects of a scene at once, such as color, motion, shape, and depth simultaneously. |
| Perceptual Adaptation | The brain’s ability to adjust to changed sensory input, like adapting to inverted goggles or a shifted visual field, so perception feels normal again. |
| Texture Gradient | As objects get farther away, their texture becomes less detailed; as they get closer, their texture looks clearer and more detailed, -monocular depth cue |
| Monocular vs Binocular depth cue | -Binocular Depth cues: need both eyes and give a detailed 3D shape -Monocular Depth cues: require one eye: used to judge distance |
| audition | the sense of hearing |
| What determines loudness? | -the amplitude of sound waves |
| Frequency | How often wavelengths pass through a given point over time |
| Pitch | the highness or lowness of tone -affected by frequency |
| What is the relationship between pitch, wave length and frequency ? | -long wavelength= low pitch and low frequency - short wavelength= high pitch and high frequency |
| Sound amplitude | -measured in decibles - for every 10 decibel increase there is a tenfold increase Ex: a sound of 60 decibels is 10,000 times greater than that of 20 decibels |
| What is the pathway of detecting and interpreting sound? | #1 sound waves hit eardrum #2the middle ear transmits sound vibrations to the cochlea #3 Inside the cochlea, fluid moves and bends hair cells #4 signals goes from the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex causing sound to be interpreted |
| What are the three parts of the middle ear (the ossicles ) | Malleus (hammer) , (anvil) , and Stapes (stirrup) |
| What does the middle ear do? | transmit sound vibrations from the eardrum to the cochlea: -located between eardrum and cochlea |
| Auditory nerve | Carries electrical signals from the hair cells in the cochlea to the thalamus. - a combination of many nerve cells |
| Auditory Cortex | location in the temporal lobe of the brain which Processes and interprets the signals from the auditory nerve. -Allow you to perceive loudness and recognize sounds |
| Cochlea | -a snail shaped tube in the inner ear through which sound waves travel through to trigger nerve impulses |
| inner ear | the innermost part of the ear containing the cochlea, vestibular sac and semicircular canals |
| sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness) | -hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve -most common form of hearing loss |
| conduction deafness (hearing loss) | caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves o the cochlea (ear drum and middle ear bones) |
| cochlear implant | electronic device that restores hearing by converting sounds into electrical signals that stimulate the cochlea. |
| Place theory | states that we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger different places on the basilar membrane (a membrane of the cochlea) |
| Frequency theory | -states that the frequency of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve allows the brain to determine pitch -as a result the rate of neural impulses equals the rate of sound waves to detect loudness |
| Volley theory | The theory that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire in rapid succession to encode high-frequency sounds, with different neurons taking turns to match the sound’s frequency. -explains how the Frequency theory is still accurate |
| Frequency vs place theory | -place theory explains how we perceive high pitch -frequency theory explains how we perceive low pitches |
| What is another name for the middle ear bones | ossicles |
| Basilar Membrane | A structure inside the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound waves. |
| Hair Cells (in the Cochlea) | Sensory receptors sitting on the basilar membrane. -Bend when the basilar membrane vibrates, converting mechanical movement into electrical signals for the auditory nerve. |
| Phantom Sensation | The perception that a missing limb is still present, often felt as tingling, movement, or pain, due to the brain’s continued representation of the amputated body part. |
| Gate control theory | Suggests that the spinal cord contains a “gate” that can block or allow pain signals to reach the brain. The gate opens when pain signals are strong. The gate closes when large nerve fibers from the brain inhibit pain transmission. |
| How can pain be psychologically and physically caused | -Physical causes: you can be physically harmed such as getting a cut -Psychologically: you can mentally trick your brain into thinking that you are experiencing pain that is not there, such as during phatnom sensation |
| Tinnitus | The perception of ringing or other sounds in the ears when no external sound is present, often occurring in people with hearing loss. -(phantom hearing) |
| Endorphins | the body's natural pain killers -people with genetically more endorphins feel less pain |
| gustation | the sense of taste |
| What are the 5 basic sensations of taste? | -sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory/meaty) |
| umami | A basic taste that signals the presence of proteins in food, often described as savory or meaty. |
| Explain taste | a chemical sense in which taste buds of he tongue sense food using receptor cells -each receptor transmits information to receptor cell's in the temporal lobe of the brain |
| olfaction | -the sense of smell |
| Kinesthesia | Sense of the position and movement of individual body parts Tells you where your limbs are without having to look at them |
| Vestibular sense | Overall Sense of full body balance and head movement. Uses the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs in the inner ear. Tells you whether you're upright, spinning, or moving. |
| Two organs for balance | semicircular canals and vestibular sacs |
| semicircular canals | fluid filled tubes in the inner ear |
| Vestibular sacs | -following head movement, it causes receptors to send nerve signals to the cerebellum to enable a sense of body position and balance |
| Sensory interaciton | -the principle that one sense may influence another |
| McGurk Effect Theory | A perceptual phenomenon where what you see in a speaker’s mouth movements can change what you hear, showing that vision can influence auditory perception. |
| Embodied cognition | The idea that thoughts and cognitive processes are influenced by the body and its interactions with the environment. |
| Supertaster | some who has many more taste buds than average and tastes stuff more intensely |
| Medium Taster | Average number of taste buds. Experiences flavors at a normal intensity. |
| Nontaster | Has fewer taste buds. Tastes bland or less intense Foods that seem strong to others may taste bland or less intense. |
| Oleogustus | the taste of fat. |
| vertigo | the false sensation of spinning or movement, even when you’re not moving. -It is usually caused by problems in the semicircular canals or vestibular system which disrupts your sense of balance. |
| Synesthesia | a condition where stimulation of one sense automatically triggers a sensation in another sense. |
| Stroop Effect | when your brain gets confused because one task is automatic and one task takes effort. -When the word “red” is printed in blue ink, it takes longer to say the ink color (blue) because reading the word (red) is automatic and creates conflict. |
| What brain area is used for taste and hearing | temporal lobe |
| What brain area is used for sight | occipital lobe |
| What brain area is used for smell | Olfactory bulb |
| What brain area is used for touch? | Somatosensory Cortex |
| What brain area is used for kinesthesia and vestibular sense(balance) | Cerebellum |
| Afterimages | The image that remains after a stimulus is removed, usually is the complementary color of the initial stimulus |
| Ganglion cells | The neurons in the retina that send visual signals to the brain; their axons form the optic nerve. |
| Olfactory system | The structures and processes involved in detecting and responding to smell |
| Relative height | -monocular depth cue in which we perceive images that are higher positions as farther away |
Created by:
KenechukwuIE