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Bio Exam #3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What process are in interphase? | G1(cell grows), S (cell duplicates its DNA, centrosome duplicates), G2 (Cell grows some more) makes up 90% of the cell cycle |
| what occurs in prophase? | Chromatin condenses into chromosomes. Nucleolus disappears |
| What occurs in prometaphase? | Nuclear membrane breaks down. Kinetochore microtubules invade nuclear space, and attach to kinetochores. Polar microtubules push against each other, moving centrosomes apart. |
| Mitotic Phase (M- phase) | The M phase is the part of the cell cycle where the cell divides into two daughter cells through mitosis and cytokinesis. Nuclear division. |
| what occurs during metaphase? | Chromosomes line up along metaphase plate (imaginary plane) |
| What occurs during Anaphase? | Chromosomes break at centromeres, and sister chromatids move to opposite ends of the cell |
| what are sister chromatids? | Sister chromatids are two identical copies of a chromosome that stick together. They are made when a cell copies its DNA before dividing. They stay connected at a spot called the centromere until it's time to split. |
| what occurs telophase ? | Nuclear membrane reforms, nucleoli reappear, chromosomes unwind into chromatin |
| what occurs during cytokinesis? | Myosin II and actin filament ring contract to cleave cell in two |
| what is Hematoxylin? | It's a stain used in histology |
| what is a Chromatin? | A complex of DNA and proteins |
| what are chromosomes? | condensed form of chromatin found in cells going through cell division. |
| define Cell cycle | The process of cell division from one cell to the next. 2 phases are interphase and M-phase |
| what does G stand for? | "Gap" - when cell appears to be inactive |
| What happens during G0 phase? | it's when the cell is not in the cell cycle. temporary - waiting for a signal to divide or permanent - cells will never divide again ex. Neurons in animals and most plant cells storage |
| What are the three phases associated with division? | Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis |
| Define DNA Replication? | genetic continuity - Complete copies of chromosomes must be made and separated |
| Define DNA Reproduction? | Cellular continuity One cell becomes two identical cells |
| Cytokinesis | physical division of the cytoplasm, organelles, and the formation of separate cell membranes |
| Mitosis | separation/ division of the nucleus and chromosmes |
| Asexual reproduction | no external DNA is required for cell division. Ex. binary fission, Budding, Mitosis |
| Genome | all DNA in a cell, must passed on |
| Centromere | linkage between two sister chromatids |
| Histones | protein complexes with several functions, here it is for organization. |
| what are the 5 basic stages of nuclear division? | Prophase (preparation and condensation), Prometaphase (attachment begins), metaphase (alignment), Anaphase (separation), and Telophase (nuclear reformation) |
| Animals - Cleavage Furrow | Contractile ring of actin and myosin filaments pinches inward from cell periphery. |
| Plants- cell plate forms | starts as tiny vesicles that fuse together to form a flat membrane sheet |
| M checkpoint failure | Nondisjunction - chromosomes do not separate correctly. |
| Haploid | one copy of one or more unique chromosomes |
| Diploid | two copies or more unique chromosomes |
| Polyploid | more than two copies of one or more chromosomes |
| Homologous chromosomes | same physical structure but due to changes over time, may have different versions of genes |
| Allele | a specific version or variant of a gene |
| karyotype | image of the chromosomes. size: largest to smallest |
| meiosis | cell division evolved to allow for diploid (or polyploid organisms to combine genomes |
| Endoreduplication- DNA replicates | DNA replicates without cell division |
| cell fusion | two haploid cells fuse |
| gametes | specialized cells used only for sexual reproduction |
| crossing over (prophase 1) | DNA breaks at the same location on both chromatids, then the broken ends swap segments and reattach. |
| Metaphase 1 | tetrads line up at metaphase plate (homologous chromosome) |
| Anaphase 1 | homologous chromosomes separate. |
| Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis | results in two haploid cells (each has 23 chromosomes) sister chromatids are no longer identical |
| meiosis 2 | starts with haploid cells |
| Prophase 2 | no pairing, no crossing over. new spindle apparatus forms in each of the two cells |
| metaphase 2 | Individual chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate |
| Anaphase2 | sister chromatids separate |
| Telophase 2 & cytokinesis | Nuclear envelopes form; chromosomes begin to uncoil, Cells divide |
| fertilization | fusion of two gametes- two haploid cells combines to create one diploid cell called zygote |
| haploid dominant | Haploid dominance is a life cycle pattern where the haploid stage (one set of chromosomes) is the main, long-lasting phase of an organism’s life. This is common in organisms like fungi, algae, and bryophytes (e.g., mosses). |
| Diploid dominant | Diploid dominance is a life cycle pattern where the diploid stage (two sets of chromosomes) is the main, long-lasting phase of an organism’s life. This is typical in humans, animals, and most plants. |
| phenotype | observable characteristics/ expressed traits |
| genotype | genetic makeup (allele composition) |
| Gene | unit of heredity that determines a character |
| locus/loci | position or positions on chromosome where alleles sit |
| monohybrid cross | 1 trait |
| Dihybrid cross | 2 traits |
| what is Law of segregation? | Each trait is determined by a pair of alleles |
| what is Law of independent assortment? | Alleles of different genes assort into gametes independently of one another |
| What is law of dominance? | When two different alleles are present in an organism, one may mask the expression of the other |
| When does Mendelian Genetics work? | *Complete Dominance *Independent Assortment *No gene interactions *Single Gene per trait *No Environmental Effects |
| what is independent assortment? | What different genes independently separate from one another during sex cell division. It allows for genetic variation in offspring and was first observed by Gregor Mendel in his studies of pea plants. |
| what is incomplete dominance? | is a genetic phenomenon where neither allele is completely dominant over the other, resulting in a phenotype that is an intermediate blend of the two parental traits. white and red make pink flowers |
| what is Co- dominance | Co-dominance is a genetic phenomenon where two different alleles at a single locus are both fully expressed in a heterozygous individual, resulting in a phenotype that displays characteristics of both alleles. |
| what does it mean if a gen has multiple alleles? | More than 2 allele versions exist in the population for a single gene (human blood type) ABO |
| what did Thomas Hunt Morgan Do? | Morgan found gene existing on the X chromosomes through the study of fruit flies. |
| what are autosomes? | chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes. they contain a majority of the genes that govern an organism's somatic traits and physiological functions. |
| Sex chromosomes? | Chromosomes involved on sex determination. |
| What is XO | females: XX; males XO (no sex chromosomes) female is default |
| what is ZW? | ZW system - Females ZW; males ZZ- male is default, |
| what is Hemizygous? | Condition in males with only one X chromosomes. |
| what is suppression of Recombination? | Suppression of recombination happens when this swapping is blocked or reduced in specific regions of the genome. This is especially common in sex chromosomes (like X and Y), where recombination is often limited to preserve important sex-determining genes. |
| what is lyonization? | also known as X-inactivation, is the process by which one of the two X chromosomes in female mammals is randomly inactivated during embryonic development, preventing an excess of gene expression. |
| what is nondisjunction? | Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis or mitosis, leading to cells with an abnormal number of chromosomes. |
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