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A&P chapter 11/12
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| immun/o | protection |
| lymph/o | lymph |
| lymphaden/o | lymph node |
| splen/o | spleen |
| thym/o | thymus gland |
| Lymphatic system can also be called the | immune system |
| Major organs | Thymus gland spleen tonsils |
| Accessory structures | thoracic duct right lymphatic duct lymph nodes and vessels MALT peyer's patches |
| Functions | fluid balance, immunity, lipid absorption, defense against disease |
| Lymph is derived from | plasma but has fewer dissolved proteins |
| Lymph washes over tissues to | deliver nutrients and remove wastes cell debris bacteria viruses and (possible cancerous) cells |
| Lymph leaves blood vessels due to | blood pressure |
| Lymph is returned to the cardiovascular system by | open-ended lymph capillaries and vessels that drain the tissue of lymph |
| Once lymph is in the capillaries the skeletal muscle pump moves | lymph through the lymph vessels |
| Valves inside the lymph vessels direct the | flow of lymph to larger lymph vessels |
| These vessels eventually drain into either the | thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct |
| The right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct deliver lymph to the | bloodstream at the subclavian veins most of the lymph is drained by the thoracic duct |
| Fluid exchange between | cardiovascular and lymphatic systems |
| The cardiovascular and lymphatic systems are interconnected by this shared fluid called | plasma while in the blood and lymph as it leaves the blood capillaries |
| Cells of the lymphatic system | natural killer, t lymphocytes, b lymphocytes, macrophages, dendrites |
| Lymphocytes that destroy bacteria fight against | transplanted tissues attack virally infected cells and destroy cancer cells |
| T cells are lymphocytes that are important in | nonspecific defense and specific immunity |
| T helper cells | Important for nonspecific defense and specific immunity |
| Recognize foreign pathogens and activate the cells to | fight them |
| Destroy kill cells infected by viruses and cancer cells in | specific immunity |
| T memory cells | Specific immunity Allow repeat exposure to be fought more swiftly |
| T regulatory cells | Suppress an immune response Inhibit multiplication and chemical secretions from other T cells Important in limiting and preventing autoimmune responses |
| B cells are | lymphocytes that serve as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and are important in humoral immunity because they produce antibodies |
| B plasma cells | Important in specific immunity Produce antibodies Dissolved proteins in plasma that seek out specific foreign antigens for their destruction |
| B memory cells | Pathogens that have been introduced to the body so that repeat exposure can be fought more swiftly |
| Macrophages | Monocytes that have migrated to the tissues where they phagocytize bacteria debris and dead neutrophils |
| Dendritic cells | Located in the epidermis that stand guard to alert the body of pathogens entering through the skin they also serve as APCs |
| MALT | Scattering of lymphocytes in mucous membranes lining tracks to the outside environment |
| Peyer’s patches | Nodules of lymphocytes at the distal end of the small intestine Fights any bacteria moving into the small intestine from the colon |
| Lymph nodes | Filter lymph on its way back to the bloodstream |
| Located throughout the body but mainly in the trunk: | cervical axillary thoracic abdominal pelvic Intestinal and mesenteric popliteal inguinal |
| Tonsils ring the pharynx to | guard against pathogens entering the body through the nose or mouth |
| Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) | Roof of the nasopharynx |
| Palatine tonsils | Laterally in the oropharynx Often swell and become inflamed during a throat infection and can be seen looking in the mouth |
| Lingual tonsils | Roof of the tongue |
| Thymus gland | located in the superior mediastinum between the sternum and aortic arch |
| The thymus gland matures T cells that recognize | foreign antigens and it destroys T cells that react to self-antigens |
| T cells migrate from the red bone marrow to the | thymus to mature |
| Largest in | kids |
| Atrophies in | adults |
| Regulates the amount of fluid in the blood by transferring excess fluid to the lymphatic system as lymph | |
| White pulp to store lymphocytes and macrophages | Battle site for lymphocytes to attack pathogens |
| The 3 lines of defense against pathogens are | external barriers specific immunity and nonspecific resistance vs specific immunity |
| External barriers | Inflammation antimicrobial proteins fever and other other active attacks |
| Specific immunity | The first 2 lines are nonspecific defenses while the third is specific immunity |
| Nonspecific defenses are | widespread and function the same way every time |
| Specific immunity requires a | prior exposure to a pathogen so that it can recognize react and remember the pathogen |
| Specific immunity reacts | faster and stronger to repeated exposures to a pathogen |
| Nonspecific defense | External barriers include the skin and mucous membranes |
| Keratin is a | tough protein that bacteria can’t easily break through |
| Skin is dry with | few nutrients for bacteria and other pathogens |
| The skin has an acid mantle which makes it | inhospitable for bacteria and other pathogens |
| Mucus traps | microbes |
| Mucus tears and saliva contain | lysozymes to destroy pathogens |
| Deep to the mucous membranes is | loose areolar connective tissue with fibers to hamper the progress of pathogens |
| Inflammation functions to limit the spread of pathogens to | remove debris and damaged tissue and to initiate tissue repair |
| Inflammation involves the release of | vasodilators from damaged tissue and basophils and the margination diapedesis and chemotaxis of leukocytes that phagocytize pathogens along the way |
| May form | pus |
| Interferon | Produced by virally infected cells so that other healthy cells will make antiviral proteins |
| Complement system | 20 inactive proteins that when activated can destroy pathogens in several ways |
| cytosis fever Opsonization | |
| Defense initiated by pyrogens (raise the body temp) from macrophages that cause the hypothalamus to | reset the body’s temp |
| Other attacks from leukocytes complete the | list of nonspecific defenses |
| Neutrophils fight | bacteria |
| Basophils release | histamines to promote inflammation |
| Eosinophils attack | worm parasites |
| Monocytes become macrophages to | phagocytize bacteria |
| APCs present epitopes of what they have | sampled from their external environment on MHC proteins |
| Other cells present | internal self-antigens on MHC proteins |
| Involves B cells producing | antibodies |
| T helper cells activate B cells by releasing | interleukin-2 |
| B cells clone themselves into | plasma cells and memory B cells |
| Primary immune response | First time you’re exposed to the pathogen Response is slow 3-6 days for activation and 10 more days for peak antibody in |
| Secondary immune response | Subsequent times exposed to the same pathogen Fast response 2-5 days for peak response Due to quick response you usually don’t get “sick” |
| T cytotoxic cells directly kill cells with | foreign antigens |
| Very effective against | virally infected cells or cancer cells but not effective against a bacterial infection |
| Both types of specific immunity require | T helper cells to recognize what’s foreign |
| Involves the release of | interleukin-1 |
| Passive | Immunity acquired through someone or something else |
| Active | Body actively creating its own immunity |
| Natural | Immunity accomplished through naturally occurring means |
| Artificial | Immunity not acquired naturally |
| Natural active immunity | Usual response of being exposed is forming immunity |
| Natural passive immunity | Acquired by a newborn from the mother Breast milk and antibodies crossing the placenta |
| Artificial active immunity | Vaccinations |
| Artificial passive immunity | Antiserum for example snake bites |
| T helper cells activated | macrophages for nonspecific defenses such as inflammation or fever |
| T helper cells recognize what’s | foreign and release interleukin-2 to activate B cells in humoral immunity |
| T helper cells recognize what’s foreign and release | interleukin-1 to activate T cytotoxic cells in cellular immunity |
| Functions of the lymphatic system | Fluid balance Defense against disease Lipid absorption Immunity |
| Ability to move fluid between the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems doesn’t | decrease with age |
| Number of B cells in the lymphoid tissues will remain | relatively stable |
| Thymus gland shrinks, number of new T cells | decrease with age |
| Hypersensitivity to allergies will decrease | decrease |
| Immunity response may slow | with age |
| Old viruses may (an example is) | reemerge (shingles) |
| Bone marrow | procedure used to collect and examine bone marrow for the presence of abnormal cells |
| CT | imaging technique used to visualize internal structures the scan produces images in “slices” of areas throughout the body in regard to lymphatic system disorders CT can be used to determine changes in organs |
| Lumbar puncture | procedure used to collect and look at CSF surrounding the brain and spinal cord for the presence of abnormal WBCs |
| Lymph node biopsy | procedure used to collect and examine part of a lymph node for the presence of abnormal cells |
| MRI OR NMRI | imaging technique used to visualize internal structures this test provides great contrast between various soft tissues in the body in regard to disorders of the lymphatic system MRI can be used to detect changes in lymphatic organs |
| WBC count | blood test that determines the number of lymphocytes the normal number of all the leukocytes is 3,450-9,060/mm^3 of blood |
| WBC differential | blood test that gives the percentage of each type of leukocyte in the total number of leukocytes normal values |
| Neutrophils | 40-70% |
| Basophils | 0-2% |
| Eosinophils | 0-6% |
| Lymphocytes | 20-50% |
| Monocytes | 4-8% |
| X-ray | electromagnetic radiation that sends protons through the body allowing the visualization of defense structures in regard to the lymphatic system disorders x-rays can be used to view the spleen for diagnosis of splenomegaly |
| Lymphoma | Cancer that affects WBCs and can develop in the organs of the lymphatic system |
| Hodgkin lymphoma | presence of abnormal B cells called reed-sternberg cells |
| Non-hodgkins lymphoma | abnormal B and T cells however not reed-sternberg cells |
| Multiple myeloma | Cancer of the plasma cells in the bone marrow forming tumors in bone |
| Elephantiasis | Tropical disease caused by a roundworm that blocks lymphatic drainage |
| Splenomegaly | Enlargement of the spleen that can be caused by any number of pathological conditions including anemia cancers and certain infections |
| Allergies | hypersensitivity to a pathogen that may have immediate or delayed side effects |
| Autoimmune disorders | result of the immune system attacking self-antigens Rheumatoid arthritis Graves’ disease and myasthenia gravis |
| Mimicry | 1 molecule is so similar in structure to another molecule that it’s mistaken for the other molecule |
| Congenital | from birth |
| AIDS | Final stage of an HIV infection in which the immune system fails to recognize foreign antigens |
| Disease affects the | helper T cells |
| Affects the ability to fight opportunistic infections | opportunistic infections |
| Kaposi sarcoma is a type | cancer caused by HIV |
| Allergies | hypersensitivity to a foreign antigen |
| Autoimmune Disorder | disorders that result from the immune system attacking self-antigens |
| Elephantiasis | tropical disease caused by roundworm that blocks lymphatic drainage |
| Immunodeficiency disorders immunodeficiency disorders are those present at birth acquired immunodeficiency disorders are those that develop from a disease or disorder acquired during one’s lifetime | disorders that affect part of the immune system resulting in the inability of the immune system to adequately defend the body from pathogens congenital |
| Lymphoma | type of cancer that affects WBCs and can develop in the organs of the lymphatic system there are 2 types Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin |
| Multiple myeloma | cancer of the plasma cells in the bone marrow |
| Splenomegaly | enlargement of the spleen that can be caused by any number of pathological conditions including anemias cancers and certain infections |
| alveol/o | alveolus air sac |
| bronch/o | bronchial tube |
| bronchiol/o and bronchil/o | bronchus |
| capn/o | carbon dioxide |
| cyan/o | blue |
| laryng/o | larynx |
| lob/o | lobe |
| nas/o and rhin/o | nose |
| pharyng/o | pharynx |
| phren/o | diaphragm |
| pneum/o and pneumon/o | air |
| pulmon/o | lung |
| sinus/o | sinus |
| spir/o | breathing |
| thorac/o | chest |
| trache/o | trachea |
| Cellular respiration is performed by | mitochondria in cells to process energy |
| Respiration as a system refers to the | movement of gases into and out of the lungs and the exchange of gases between the alveoli and capillaries in the lung and capillaries and tissues in the body |
| Major organs | nose pharynx larynx trachea bronchi lungs |
| Accessory structures | diaphragm sinuses nasal cavity |
| Functions | gas exchange acid-base balance speech sense of smell creation of pressure gradient necessary to circulate lymph and blood |
| Upper respiratory system | Respiratory anatomy in the head and neck |
| Respiratory anatomy in the head and neck | Nasal cavity then nose then pharynx (nasopharynx oropharynx and laryngopharynx) then larynx |
| Lower respiratory tract | Respiratory anatomy in the thoracic cavity |
| Respiratory anatomy in the thoracic cavity | Trachea then main bronchi (lungs) then bronchial tree then alveoli |
| Sequence of air through respiratory system | nose |
| pharynx | larynx |
| Larynx | trachea |
| Trachea | bronchi |
| Bronchi | lungs |
| Lungs | bronchial tree |
| Bronchial tree | alveoli |
| Alveoli | nose |
| Nasal bones and nasal cartilages shape the | nose |
| Nares | nostrils |
| Mucous membranes of the nasal cavity | warm and moisturize the air and remove debris |
| Nasal conchae are the | 3 bony lateral ridges that provide extra surface area |
| Vestibule | anterior part of the nasal cavity lined by stratified squamous epithelial tissue with stiff guard hairs to block debris from entering the respiratory tract |
| Pharynx | throat Common passageway for food and air |
| The pharynx is composed of the | nasopharynx oropharynx and laryngopharynx |
| Larynx | voice box |
| Larynx is a | cartilaginous box that contains the vocal cords |
| larynx contains | Thyroid cartilage Arytenoid cartilage Comiculate cartilage |
| Muscles in the larynx move cartilages that allow the vocal cords to | vibrate to produce sound |
| Epiglottis | blocks the entrance to the trachea when swallowing |
| Trachea | Has 18-20 c-shaped cartilages that hold it open for the easy passage of air |
| Trachea splits to form the | main bronchi |
| Inner lining is ciliated to trap | debris from accumulating in the lungs |
| Each main bronchus enters a | lung and then further divides to form the bronchial tree |
| Lobar bronchi go to each | lobe of the lung |
| Left lung has 2 lobes and the right lung has 3 lobes due to the | position of the heart |
| Bronchioles have smooth muscle in their | walls and lobules |
| alveoli (grape-like clusters) | branch more to small air sacs in the lung |
| Alveoli have walls of simple squamous cells and greater alveolar cells that produce | surfactant |
| Surfactant reduces the surface tension of water so that | alveoli don’t collapse |
| Hyaline membrane disease | Alveoli in infants born before the lungs are mature often collapse because of the lack of sufficient surfactant Infants born before 7 months can develop this condition |
| Respiratory membrane is composed of | Thin layer of water with surfactant in the alveoli Single squamous cell alveolar wall Single cell capillary wall |
| Inspiration results from | intercostal muscles and the diaphragm’s contracting to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity thereby decreasing its pressure |
| Air flows due to | pressure gradients |
| Pleural membranes cause the | lungs to expand with the thoracic cavity |
| Normal inspiration is caused by contraction of the | intercostal muscles and diaphragm |
| Forced inspiration involves | additional muscles such as the sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis minor |
| Normal expiration is caused by the | relaxation of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm |
| Forced expiration is caused by | muscle contraction |
| Pneumothorax | Collapsed lung Occurs if air is introduced in the pleural cavity between the pleural membranes |
| Hemothorax | Blood is introduced into the pleural cavity |
| Spirometer can be used to measure | lung volumes and capacities |
| Compliance measures how well the lung can | expand and return to shape |
| Decreased compliance in | chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders |
| Tidal volume | amount of air moved in a normal breath (inspiration or expired) at rest 500 ml |
| Inspiratory reserve volume | amount of air that can be forcefully inspired beyond the amount inspired in a normal breath at rest 3,000 ml |
| Expiratory reserve volume | amount of air that can be forcefully expired beyond the amount expired in a normal breath at rest 1,100 ml |
| Residual volume | amount of air in the lungs that can’t be moved 1,200 ml |
| Functional residual capacity | amount of air remaining in the lungs after the expiration of a normal breath at rest FRC = ERV + RV 2,300 ml |
| Inspiratory capacity | maximum amount of air that can be inspired after the expiration of a normal breath at rest IC = TC + IRV 3,500 ml |
| Vital capacity | maximum amount of air that can be moved VC = IC + FRC 4,600 ml |
| Total lung capacity | maximum amount of air the lung can hold TLC = VC + RV 5,800 ml |
| Air is a mixture of gases including | nitrogen oxygen carbon dioxide and water vapor |
| Partial pressure | amount of pressure an individual gas contributes to the total pressure of the mixture |
| Gas exchange happens between the | alveoli and the capillaries in the lung and between the capillaries and tissues of the body |
| Gasses diffuse across membranes because of a | concentration on both sides of the membrane are equal |
| Inspired air has more | oxygen and less carbon dioxide than expired air |
| Factors that influence gas exchange | concentration of the gas, membrane area membrane thickness solubility of the gas ventilation-perfusion coupling |
| Concentration of the gas | Greater the concentration gradient the more diffusion takes place |
| Membrane area | Greater the membrane area the greater the opportunity for diffusion |
| Membrane thickness | Make diffusion more difficult |
| Solubility of the gas | Must be soluble in the water to diffuse across the respiratory membrane |
| Ventilation-perfusion coupling | airflow to the lung must match the blood flow to the lung |
| Lung perfusion (blood flow to alveoli) | Alveolar capillaries constrict where the partial pressure of oxygen is low so blood is diverted to where the partial pressure of the oxygen is high |
| Alveolar ventilation | (air flow to alveoli) |
| Bronchioles dilate if partial pressure of carbon dioxide | decreases |
| Bronchioles constrict if the partial pressure of carbon dioxide | decreases |
| Airflow is directed to lobules where partial pressure of carbon dioxide | is high |
| Gas transport | Most of the oxygen is transported in the blood by hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin and most of the carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as bicarbonate ions |
| Hemoglobin functions to | carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and to carry hydrogen ions from the tissue to the lungs |
| Respiration is controlled by | respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata |
| Medulla oblongata receives information concerning the need to control respiration from | stretch receptors the pons the cerebral cortex and chemoreceptors |
| The drivers of respiration are | ph co2 and o2 (in that order) |
| Information to the medulla comes from | several sources |
| Stretch receptors in the thoracic wall react to the degree of chest expansion when | maximum expansion has been reached messages are sent to the medulla oblongata to prevent overinflation of the lungs this is called the hearing breuer reflex |
| Proprioceptors in muscles and joints alert the medulla when a | greater demand is needed |
| Pontine respiratory group in the pons receive input from other brain areas to adjust transitions from | inspiration to expiration |
| Cerebral cortex can override reflexes | hold breath |
| Peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid arteries and the central chemoreceptors in the medulla sends | information regard ph co2 and o2 |
| Respiratory center is sensitive to changes in | co2 and h+ |
| Increases in co2 and h+ causes respiratory center to increase | rate and depth of breathing |
| Causes loss of co2 and h+ and lowers levels to | normal |
| Decreases in co2 and h+ causes | brief apnea |
| Allows co2 and h+ levels to rise | back to normal |
| Carotid and aortic bodies are sensitive to | o2 concentration |
| Low oxygen levels cause them to send impulses to | respiratory center |
| Increases the sensitivity of chemoreceptors in respiratory area to changes in | co2 concentrations |
| O2 levels have little effect on normal breathing unless | very low |
| Hypoxic drive | Respiration is adjusted by the medulla oblongata to maintain ph 7.35-7.45 |
| Acidosis occurs if the ph is less than | 7.35 |
| Medulla oblongata stimulates hyperventilation (increases respiratory rate) to blow off co2 through expiration to | raise the ph |
| Alkalosis occurs if the ph is greater than | 7.45 |
| Medulla oblongata stimulates hypoventilation (decreases respiratory rate) to keep co2 in the blood to lower the | ph |
| Hypercapnia | Increased carbon dioxide in the blood Causes the ph to fall in body fluids |
| Functions of the respiratory system | Gas exchange Acid-base balance Speech Sense of smell Creation of pressure gradients necessary to circulate blood and lymph |
| Ciliated escalator becomes | less efficient so more mucus and debris accumulate in the respiratory tract and this can lead to infection |
| Thoracic wall compliance decreases due to the | diminished ability of the chest to expand which reduces vital capacity |
| Some alveolar walls break down with age and thicken reducing the area of the | respiratory membrane |
| Obstructive sleep apnea (breathing repeatedly stops and starts when sleeping) may occur if the | pharyngeal muscles block the airway |
| Atrial blood gas | test of the atrial blood that determines the levels of o2 and co2 in the blood |
| Biopsy | procedure in which tissue is collected and examined for the presence of abnormal cells |
| Chest x-ray | use of electromagnetic radiation that sends photons through the body to create a visual image of dense structures such as the lungs |
| Complete blood count | series of blood tests including hematocrit hemoglobin RBC count WBC count differential WBC count and platelet count |
| CT CT can be used to determine changes in the organs of the respiratory system located in the head neck and chest | imaging technique used to visualize internal structures the scan produces images in “slices” of areas throughout the body in regard to regard to disorders of the respiratory system |
| Cultures and septum analysis | procedure that involves collecting a culture or septum from a patient and performing various tests to identify the microorganism causing an infection |
| Mantoux test for TB | test that determines whether a person has developed an immune response to the bacterium that causes tuberculosis |
| Monospot test | determine the presence of antibodies to infectious mononucleosis |
| Oxygen saturation test | measures the amount of oxygen being carried by RBCs |
| Peak flow meter | measures the rate at which a person can exhale air |
| Pulmonary angiogram | x-ray of the blood vessels in the lungs |
| Pulse oximetry | use of infrared light to determine the amount of oxygenated hemoglobin in the blood |
| Rapid influenza test | determine the presence of influenza antigens |
| Rapid stress test | determine whether strep bacteria are present in the patient’s throat |
| Spirometry | measures the respiratory system functions of moving air into the lungs and moving air out of the lungs |
| Thoracentesis | procedure in which fluid is removed from the chest through a needle or tube |
| Ultrasound | sound waves create visual images of internal structures |
| Cold | most common respiratory infection caused by rhinovirus |
| symptoms of cold | sneezing coughing increased mucus production |
| Flu | respiratory illness caused by a virus same symptoms as a cold with fever chills and muscle aches |
| Pharyngitis | commonly known as a sore throat |
| Laryngitis | loss of voice caused by inflammation of the larynx |
| Croup | loud seal-like barking cough and difficulty breathing |
| Tuberculosis | respiratory infection caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium |
| Pertussis | highly contagious bacterial infection that causes paralysis of the cilia in the respiratory epithelium this results in the accumulation of mucus and debris causing whooping cough |
| Acute bronchitis | inflammation of the bronchial tubes following a respiratory infection |
| Pneumonia | infection resulting in pulmonary edema and inflammation which causes the respiratory membrane to thicken reducing gas exchange |
| Asthma | increased construction of the lower respiratory tract due to a variety of stimuli |
| Chronic bronchitis | long-term irritation of the bronchial tree’s epithelium resulting in inflammation loss of cilia and overproduction of mucus |
| Emphysema | loss of respiratory membrane caused by chronic coughing which results in increased pressure in the alveoli that leads to the rupturing of the alveolar walls |
| ARDS | respiratory distress in patients who are already experiencing illness or have had major trauma |
| Hyaline membrane disease | respiratory distress in premature infants due to the collapse of alveoli from the lack of surfactant |
| Laryngeal cancer | cancer of the larynx which is commonly associated with the use of tobacco products or excessive alcohol consumption |
| Lung cancer | cancer of the lungs |
| Squamous cell carcinoma | originates in the bronchial epithelium |
| Adenocarcinoma | originates in the mucous glands of the bronchial tree |
| Oat cell carcinoma | least common but the most deadly because it easily metastases |
| Acidosis | condition in which the ph of the blood is less than 7.35 |
| Alkalosis | condition in which the ph of the blood is greater than 7.45 |
| Cystic fibrosis | genetic disease that causes the production of a sticky mucus that can’t be moved easily by the respiratory epithelium’s ciliated escalator the mucus accumulation in the lungs and airways leads to infection |
| Hemothorax | blood in the pleural cavity |
| Hypercapnia | increased carbon dioxide in the blood |
| Pleurisy | condition characterized by inflammation of the pleura |
| Pneumothorax | collapsed lung which occurs if air is introduced in the pleural cavity between the pleural membranes |
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