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Bio ch 8-13
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| asexual reproduction | generation of offspring from a single parent that occurs without the fusion of gametes |
| stoma | microscopic pore in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows for gas exchange |
| signal transduction pathway | a series of steps linking a mechanical, chemical, or electrical stimulus to a specific response |
| energy | the power to enact change, especially to do work |
| heterotroph | an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms |
| sister chromatids | two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached to each other by proteins at the centromere |
| sexual reproduction | reproduction arising from fusion of two gametes |
| variation | differences between members of the same species |
| cooperativity | a shape change in one subunit of a protein caused by substrate binding is transmitted to all other subunits, facilitating binding of additional substrate moles to those subunits |
| synapsis | pairing and physical connection of one duplicated chromosome to its homolog during prophase 1 of meiosis |
| genetics | sci study of heredity and hereditary variation |
| prophase | -1st stage of mitosis - chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes -miotic spindle begins to form -nucleolus disappears, but nucleus remains intact |
| alternation of generations | a life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form (sporophyte) and a multicellular haploid form (gametophyte) |
| centromere | the region on each sister chromatid where it is most closely attached to its sister by proteins that bind to centromeric DNA |
| lactic acid fermentation | Glycolysis followed by the reduction of pyruvate to lactate regenerating NAD+ with no release of carbon dioxide |
| reduction | the complete or partial addition of electrons to s substance involved in a redox reaction |
| carbon fixation | initial incorporation of CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism |
| ligand | molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one |
| catalysis | Process by which a chemical agent selectively increases the rate of reaction without being consumed |
| NADP+ | -the oxidized form of NADP. -electron carrier that can accept electrons becoming NADPH |
| sex chromosome | chromosome responsible for determining the sex of an individual |
| allosteric regulation | binding of a regulatory molecule to a protein at one site that affects the function of the protein at a different site |
| reducing agent | electron donor |
| potential energy | the amount of energy matter posses based on either its structure or location |
| electromagnetic spectrum | entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation |
| feedback inhibition | method of metabolic control in which end product inhibits an enzyme within that pathway |
| binary fission | method of asexual reproduction in a single cell org in which the cell grows to double its size then divides into 2 cells |
| centrosome | a structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells that functions as a microtubule organizing center |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | every energy transfer increases the entropy of the universe |
| G3P | 3 carbon carbohydrate that is the direct product of the calvin cycle |
| NADH | reduced form of NAD that temp stores electrons during cellular respiration |
| Crossing over | reciprocal exchange of genetic material between non sister chromatids during prophase 1 of meiosis |
| cell division | reproduction of cells |
| mesophyll | leaf cells specialized for photosynthesis |
| alcohol fermentation | -glycolysis followed by the reduction of pyruvate to ethyl alcohol -regenerates NAD+ and releases CO2 |
| interphase | -Period in cell cycle when cell isn't dividing -Cellular metabolic activity high -chomosomes and organelles duplicated |
| substrate level phosphorylation | enzyme-catalyzed formation of ATP by direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP form an intermediate substrate in catabolism |
| somatic cell | any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm, egg, or their precursors |
| cell plate | membrane-bounded flattened sac located at the midline of a dividing plant cell (new cell wall forms here during cytokinesis) |
| ligand-gated ion channel | transmembrane protein containing a pore that opens or closes as it changes shape in response to a signaling molecule |
| metastasis | spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site |
| catalyst | a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of reaction without being consumed by the reaction |
| chromatin | complex of DNA and proteins that make up eukaryotic chromosomes |
| gamete | haploid reproductive cell formed by meiosis or is the dependent of cells formed by meiosis |
| spontaneous process | process that occurs without an input of energy |
| energy coupling | use of energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction |
| endergonic reaction | non spontaneous chem reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings |
| cell cycle | ordered sequence of events in the life of a cell |
| gene | discrete unit of hereditary info consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA |
| aerobic respiration | catabolic pathway for organic molecules using oxygen as the final electron acceptor in an electron transport chain and ultimately producing ATP |
| primary electron acceptor | -located in thylakoid membrane of chloroplast or membrane of some prokaryotes -specialized molecule that shares the reaction center complex with a pair of chlolophyll a molecules and that accepts an electron from them |
| homologous chromosomes (homologs) | -pair of chromosomes the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci |
| density-dependent inhibition | phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that cause them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another |
| photosystem 1 | light capturing unit in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane |
| cyclic electron flow | route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only one photosystem and that produces ATP but not NADPH or O2 |
| 1st law of thermodynamics | energy can be transferred and transformed but it can't be created or destroyed |
| autotroph | -obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms -use energy from sun or from oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules |
| rubisco | enzyme that normally catalyzes the 1st step of the calivn cycle |
| bioenergetics | -overall flow and transformation of energy in an org |
| heat | thermal energy transferred from one body of matter to another |
| fertilization | -union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote |
| reduction | complete or partial addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction |
| exergonic reaction | spontaneous chemical reaction in which there is a net release of free energy |
| 2nd messenger | molecule that relays messages in a cell from a receptor to a target where an action within the cell takes place |
| asexual reproduction | generation of offspring from a single parent that occurs without fusion of gametes |
| chromosome | cellular structure consisting of one DNA molecule and associated protein molecules |
| apoptosis | programmed cell death, brought about by activation of enzymes that break down many chem components in a cell |
| anchorage dependence | a cell must be attached otherwise a substratum in order to initiate cell division |
| diploid cell | cell containing two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent) |
| stroma | dense fluid within the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane and containing ribosomes and DNA |
| free energy | portion of a biological systems energy that can preform work when temperature and pressure are uniform thought the system |
| coenzyme | organic molecule serving as a cofactor |
| cellular respiration | catabolic pathways of aerobic and anaerobic respiration which break down organic molecules and use an electron transport chain for production of ATP |
| G0 | nondividing state occupied by cells that have left eh cell cycle |
| ATP synthase | -complex of several membrane proteins that function in chemiosmosis -use energy of a hydrogen ion concentration gradient to make ATP |
| photosystem 2 | 1 of 2 light capturing units in a chloroplasts thylakoid membrane or in the membrane of some prokaryotes |
| NADPH | reduced form of NADP; temp stores electrons produced during light reactions |
| G1 phase | first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins |
| thermal energy | kinetic energy due to random motion of atoms and molecules; energy in its most random form |
| reaction center complex | -complex of proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor -triggers light reactions of photosynthesis |
| electron transport chain | sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons down a series of redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP |
| prometaphase | 2nd stage of mitosis, nuclear envelope fragments and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes |
| thylakoid | -flattened, membranous sac inside a chloroplast -often exist in stacks called grand -contain molecular "machinery " used to convert light energy to chem energy |
| zygote | diploid cell produced by the union of haploid gametes during fertilization |
| thermodynamics | study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter |
| haploid cell | cell containing only one set of chromosomes |
| S phase | -synthesis phase of the cell cycle -portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated |
| ATP | releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. this energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells |
| C3 plant | plant that uses the calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material forming a 3 carbon compound as the first stable intermediate |
| oxidizing agent | electron acceptor |
| G2 phase | 2nd gap or growth phase of the cell cycle consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs |
| cyclin | -cellular protein that occurs in a cyclically fluctuating concentration and that plays an important role in regulating the cell cycle |
| life cycle | generation to generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an org |
| photosynthesis | conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in sugars or other organic compounds |
| calvin cycle | 2nd of two major stages in photosynthesis involving CO2 fixation and reducion of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate |
| chlorophyll | -green pigment located in membranes within the chloroplasts of plants and algae and in the membranes of certain prokaryotes |
| kinetochore | structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle |
| induced fit | caused by entry of substrate the change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate |
| meiosis | -modified cell division in sexually reproducing orgs consisting of 2 rounds of cell division but only one round of DNA replication -results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets |
| competitive inhibitor | substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering active site in place of the substrate |
| meiosis 2 | 2nd division of a two stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing orgs that results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the org cell |
| metaphase | 3rd stage of mitosis in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate |
| photon | quantum, or discrete quantity of light energy that behaves as if it were a particle |
| mitotic (M) phase | phase of cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis |
| checkpoint | control point in cell cycle where stop and go signals reg the cycle |
| chemiosmosis | -energy coupling mechanism -uses energy stored in form of hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work, such as synthesis of ATP |
| enzyme | macromolecule serving as a catalyst |
| heredity | transmission of traits from one gen to the next |
| light reactions | -first of 2 major stages in photosynthesis -occur in thylakoid membranes -convert solar energy to chem energy of ATP and NADPH, releasing O2 in process |
| active site | specific region of enzyme that binds the substrate and that forms the pocket in which catalysis occurs |
| facultative anaerobe | an org that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but switches to anaerobic/fermentation if oxygen not present |
| CAM plants | -photosynthesis adaption for arid climates -plant takes up CO2 and incorporates it into a variety of organic acids at night -during the day CO2 is released from organic acids for use in the calvin cycle |
| metabolism | totality of an orgs chemical reactions consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways which manage the material and energy resources of the org |
| autosome | chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex |
| mitotic spindle | assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movement of chromosomes during mitosis |
| kinetic energy | energy associated with the relative motion of objects |
| fermentation | catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain |
| substrate | the reactant on which an enzyme works |
| metabolic pathway | series of chem reactions that either builds a complex molecule or breaks down an complex molecule to simpler molecules |
| linear electron flow | route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and O2 |
| oxidative phosphorylation | production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; 3rd major stage of cellular respiration |
| chloroplast | organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water |
| meiosis 1 | 1st division of a 2 stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing orgs that results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the orig cell |
| protein kinase | enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein thus phosphorylating the protein |
| cytokinesis | division of cytoplasm to form 2 separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis, meiosis 1, or meiosis 2 |
| entropy | measure of molecular disorder or randomness |
| catabolic pathway | metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler molecules |
| C4 plant | calvin cycle is preceded by reaction that incorporate CO2 not a 4 carbon compound, end product supples CO2 for calvin cycle |
| anaphase | 4th stage of mitosis in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell |
| recombinant chromosome | chromosome created when crossing over combines DNA from 2 parents into a single chromosome |
| karyotype | display of chromosome paris of a cell arranged by size and shape |
| cleavage furrow | 1st sign of cleavage in an animal cell; shallow groove around the cell in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate |
| enzyme-stubstrate complex | temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecules |
| telophase | final stage in mitosis in which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis has begun |
| NAD+ | oxidized form of NAD |
| chemical energy | energy avail in molecules for release in a chem reaction; form of potential energy |
| oxidation | complete or partial loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction |
| hormone | one of many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells |
| glycolysis | -series of reactions that ultimately splits glucose into pyruvate -starting point for fermentation or cellular respiration |
| metaphase plate | imaginary structure located at a plane midway between two poles of a cell in metaphase on which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located |
| mitosis | -process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells - 5 stages: prophase, pro metaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase -conserves chromosome number by allocating replicated chromosomes equally to each daughter nuclei |
| phosphorylated intermediate | molecule with a phosphate group covalently bound to it making it more reactive |
| anabolic pathway | metabolic pathway that consumes energy to synthesize a complex molecule from simpler molecules |
| cytochrome | iron-containing protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells |
| genome | genetic material of an organism or virus |
| activation energy | amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start |
| photophosphorylation | process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate y means of chemiosmosis |
| locus | a specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located |
| photorespiration | -metabolic pathway that consumes O2 and ATP -releases CO2, decreases photosynthetic output -occurs on hot, dry, bright days |
| cofactor | any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for proper functioning of an enzyme |
| citric acid cycle | -chemical cycle involving 8 steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules begun in glycolysis by oxidizing acetyl CoA to CO2 -occurs in mitochondria or cytosol -2nd major stage in cellular respiration |
| noncompetitive inhibitor | substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site |
| when electrons are passed from one atom to another more electronegative atom the more electron atom is | reduced, and energy is released |
| glycolysis results in the net production of which of the following sets of molecules per glucose molecule | 2NADH, 2pyruvate, and 2ATP |
| which of the following products result from the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA | NADH and CO2 |
| which of the following sequences describes the path by which electrons move form high energy to low energy molecules in aerobic respiration | glucose --> pyruvate --> electron transport chain --> NADH --> ATP |
| in the absence of oxygen yeast cells can obtain energy by fermentation which results in the net production of which of the following sets of molecules | ATP, CO2, ethanol |
| In which of the following orgs did the process of photosynthesis most likely originate | prokaryotes |
| which of the following statements best describes the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration | photosynthesis stores energy in complex organic molecules; cellular respiration releases energy from complex organic molecules |
| which of the following processes occurs in the calvin cycle | reduction fo CO2 |
| in which cellular structure are the enzymes of the calvin cycle localized | stroma of the chloroplasts |
| which of the following molecules will accumulate if light reactions occur normally, but the calvin cycle is inhibited | ATP and NADPH |
| a decrease in entropy is associated with which type of reaction | dehydration |
| an enzyme is composed of 4 identical subunits. Binding of substrate to one subunit stimulates more rapid binding of substrate to each of the other 3 subunits. This enzyme is likely regulated by which of the following mechanisms | cooperativity |
| Steps of Mitosis in an animal cell | -G2 of Interphase -Prophase -Prometaphase -Metaphase -Anaphase -Telophase + Cytokinesis |
| Mitosis : G2 of Interphase | -Nuclear envelope encloses nucleus -Nucleus contains 1 or more nuclleoli -2 centromeres have formed by duplication -chromosomes duplicated during S phase |
| Mitosis: Prophase | -Chromatin fibers more tightly coiled -nucleoli disappears -each duplicate chromosome appears as 2 identical sister chromatids joined at centromere -mitotic spindle forms -centromeres move away from eachother |
| Mitosis: Prometaphase | -Nuclear envelope fragments -microtubules can now invade nuclear area -chromosomes even more condensed -Kinetochore formed at centromere -Some microtubules attach to kinetochore -nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen cell |
| Mitosis: Metaphase | -centrosomes now at opposite poles -chromosomes at metaphase plate -kinetochore of sister chromatids attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from poles |
| Mitosis: Anaphase | -Cohesion proteins cleaved allowing sister chromatids to part -2 new daughter chromosomes being moving towards opposite ends of the cell -cell elongates -By end: both ends have identical and complete collections of chromosomes |
| Mitosis: Telophase | -2 daughter nuclei form and nuclear envelopes arise from fragments -nucleoli reappear -chromosomes less condensed -spindle microtubules depolymerize -mitosis is complete |
| Mitosis: cytokinesis | -2 daughter cells appear -Cleave furrow forms |
| Steps of Meiosis in Animal Cells | -Prophase I -Metapase I -Anaphase I -Telophase I and Cytokinesis -TWO CELLS NOW -Prophase II -Metaphase II -Anaphase II -Telophase II and Cytokinesis |
| Meiosis: Prophase I | -centrosome movement, spindle formation, nuclear envelope breakdown -each chromosome pairs with its homolog and crossing over occurs -Microtubules attach to kinetochores |
| Meiosis: Metaphase I | -Pairs of homologous chromosomes arrange at metaphase plate -each pari has lined up independently of other pairs -both chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules |
| Meiosis: Anaphase I | -Breakdown of proteins responsible for sister chromatid cohesion -homologs move toward opposite poles -sister chromatid cohesion persists |
| Meiosis: Telophase I and Cytokinesis | -when begins each half has complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes -cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with Telophase I -Cleavage furrow forms |
| Meiosis: Prophase II | -spindle forms -chromosomes moved by microtubules |
| Meiosis: Metaphase II | -chromosomes positioned at metaphase plate -kinetochores attached to microtubules |
| Meiosis: Anaphase II | -Breakdown of proteins holding sister chromatids together -Chromatids separate and move to opposite poles |
| Meiosis: Telophase II and Cytokinesis | -Nuclei form, chromosomes begin decongesting and cytokinesis occurs -Miotic division of one parent cell produces 4 Daugher cells |
Created by:
bouzianeju