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UNIT 1 chp2,4,5
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| nature | (heredity) genetics, predisposed characteristics/ hair, eye color, personality |
| nurture | (environmental factors) experiences, homelife, education |
| natural selection | evolutionary process by which traits that increase chances of survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations |
| eugenics | selective breeding/ discriminatory |
| monozygotic twins | identical (share same genetic code)(same gender) |
| dizygotic twins | fraternal (male, female) |
| central nervous system | brain and spine |
| peripheral nervous system | rest of body |
| somatic nervous system | voluntary actions |
| autonomic nervous system | involuntary (breathing and heart) |
| parasympathetic nervous system | calms body, relaxes |
| sympathetic nervous system | fight or flight (adrenaline) |
| neurons | transmit info |
| glial cells | support; protection & nourishment to neurons (glue) |
| reflex arc | neural pathways that controls an automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus without the need for conscious brain movement |
| sensory neurons | to CNS |
| motorneurons | away from CNS |
| interneurons | connects senrsory and motor neurons (sends signal to motor to move) |
| all-or-nothing principle | the neuron will fire (action potential) or it won't |
| depolarization | change in charge of the neuron, allowing it to send a message |
| refractory period | reset, neuron can't fire (neuron fires and gets tired) |
| resting potential | inactive, but ready to go |
| reuptake | recycling of the neurotransmitter |
| threshold | trigger point for cell to fire (once in threshold, no stopping) |
| mulitple sclerosis | immune system attacks myelin sheaths (fatty substance) around a neuron, causing a range of neurological symptoms |
| myasthenia gravis | attack acetylcholine receptors sites making it difficult to move skeletal muscles |
| neurotransmitters | chemical sent from one neuron to another |
| excitatory | increase likelihood of neuron firing |
| inhibitory | decrease likelihood of neuron firing |
| dopamine | influences rewards (addiction: dopamine released), voluntary movement, learning, attention and emotion |
| serotonin | affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal |
| norepinephrine | (fight or flight) helps control alertness and arousal |
| glutamate | (helps neurons fire) excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory |
| GABA | (prevent neurons from firing) inhibitory neurotransmitter; natural tranquilizer involved in calming you down |
| endorphins | (released through pain and pleasure) influence the perception of pain and pleasure (runner's high) |
| substance p | pain transmission |
| acetylcholine | (aCh) enables muscle action, learning and memory |
| endocrine system | controlled by Pituitary Gland-released in bloodstream |
| pituitary gland | controls endocrine system (master gland). talks to hypothalamus |
| hormones | chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect other tissued and influence behaviors such as growth, metabolism and mood |
| adrenaline | prepare body for emergencies, enhancing alertness and physical readiness for immediate action, fight or flight, same chemical as epinephrine |
| leptin | Regulates energy balance by inhibiting hunger, influences your appetite and food intake. Changes in leptin levels can affect mood and motivation related to eating behaviors and are involved in the long-term regulation of body weight |
| ghrelin | "hunger hormone " when released, it stimulates hunger to increase your food intake. levels increase before meals and decrease after eating. linked to reward mechanisms in the brain influencing pleasure related eating behaviors |
| melatonin | Regulate the circadian rhythms and sleep/ wake cycle. influenced by light. When it gets darker melatonin is released to cause drowsiness. Disruptions and melatonin can relate to insomnia and seasonal effective disorder (SAD) |
| oxytocin | "love hormone" "social bonding hormone" release from social interaction and bonding activities (childbirth and physical touch) it facilitates attachment and trust and plays a role in the romantic attractions and parenting behaviors |
| brain stem | the oldest and most basic part of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions such as breathing, heart rate, and arousal |
| medualla | heart reat, breathing reflexes. the structure that connect the brain with the spinal cord. controls vital life funtions |
| reticular activating system | alertness/arousal |
| cerebellum | posture/ movement. the structure in the hindbrain involved in controlling coordination and balance |
| cerebral cortex | the wrinkled outer layer of the brain made up of interconnected neutral cells; is responsible for higher-level mental processes such as thinking, speaking and decision making |
| right hemisphere | creativity, imagination, music, 3D forms |
| left hemisphere | logic, reasoning, science, math, language |
| limbic system | regulates emotions, motivation, and memories (thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus) |
| thalamus | relay for sensory info to the cerebral cortex |
| hypothalamus | food, thirst, sex, body temp (drives) (tells you when you're hungry, thirsty) |
| hippocampus | memories |
| amygdala | emotional response, fear/ aggression |
| corpus callosum | connects the right and left hemisphere to be able to communicate and transfer info between them |
| occipital lobe | vision. cortical areas at the brain of the brain that play a role in visual processing (visual cortex) |
| temporal lobe | hearing language-left wernicke's area (auditory cortex) |
| parietal lobe | process/organize info somatosensory cortex |
| somatosensory cortex | processes, interprets, and receives info from our joints, muscles, and tendons sense of touch |
| frontal lobe | problem solving/ intelligence. personality motor cortex broca's area |
| motor cortex | a brain area associated with the control of movement (directs body muscles) |
| split brain research | right hemisphere and left hemisphere |
| broca's area | a language area related to grammar and punctuation |
| wernicke's area | a temporal lobe brain area related to language comprehension |
| aphasia | lose power to use or comprehend words |
| cortex specialization | the idea that different areas/ regions of the cerebral cortex are specialized to perform specific functions |
| contralateral hemispheric organization | a principle of brain functioning stating that each hemisphere of the brain is responsible for sensory input and motor control of the opposite of the body |
| brain plasticity | ability to rewire, modify, or create new connections -easier for younger ppl (kids) because their brain is still developing/growing |
| EEG | brain waves, electrical activity |
| fMRI | (functional MRI) uses MRI tech that measures blood flow -red/ yellow=high -blue/green=low |
| lesioning | surgery/damage |
| consciousness | our awareness of ourselves and our environment -immediate awareness, thoughts, feelings, senses |
| preconscious | thoughts and MEMORIES we are currently not aware of, but could be |
| unconscious | learning, memory, perceptions we are unaware of |
| circadian rhythm | the biological 24 hr clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur -affected by jet lag and shift work -lead to sleep deprivation and poor concentration |
| why do we sleep | restorative model and cognitive model -cycles every 90 min -less sleep and REM as we get older (kids compared to adults) |
| restorative model | restore energy, physiological functions. new research suggest brain removes neurotoxic waste |
| cognitive model | allows brain to process info from that day, supports long term memory |
| jet lag | a disruption of the body's normal circadian rhythm that occurs when you travel rapidly across multiple times zones, causing your internal biological clock to be out of sync with the local time |
| EEG patterns of sleep | measurable brain wave activity recorded by an EEG that changes systematically across the stages of sleep, reflecting variations in brain activity and consciousness |
| NREM sleep | the stages of sleep (1-3) that do NOT include rapid eye movement and are associated with slower brain activity, reduced physiological activity and limited dreaming |
| REM sleep | A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity, vivid dreaming, and temporary muscle paralysis. characterized by rapid eye movements and brain wave patterns similar to those of an awake state |
| REM rebound | the tendancy for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (lack of sleep or interuptions), resulting in entering REM sleep more quickly and spending more time in it once normal sleep resumes |
| activation synthesis theory | the theory that dreams are the brains attempt to make sense of random neutral activity that occurs during REM sleep by creating a coherent story from internally generated signals |
| consolidation theory of dreaming | the theory that dreaming helps the brain process, story and organize info from the day, playing a key role in memory consolidation and learning |
| insomnia | difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep -frequent nighttime awakening -waking too early |
| narcolepsy | a sudden, irresistible sleep attack -may fall directly into REM -heredity |
| REM sleep behavior disorder | a sleep disorder in which you physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep -act out REM dreams (movement and thinking) |
| sleep apnea | disorder in which a person stops breathing during sleep, causing them to wake up to gast for air, then sleep -overweight, robs person of deep sleep, interferes with attention and memory |
| somnambulism | people who sleep walk; occurs during NREM sleep -eyes open but blank face, shuffling feet, can't occur during REM sleep bc body isn't paralyzed |
| psychoactive drugs | chemical substances that alter perception, mood, consciousness and behavior by affecting the brain's neurotransmitter systems |
| agonist | drug that mimics neurotransmitter |
| antagonists | drug that blocks neurotransmitter |
| reuptake inhibitors | drugs/chemicals that block the reuptake of neurotransmitters by sending the neuron, increasing the amt of neurotransmitter available in the synapse and enhancing its effects on the receiving neuron |
| stimulants | increase neutral activity -caffein, cocaine |
| caffeine | stimulant drug that increases activity in the central nervous system, leading to heightened alertness, reduced fatuge, and increased energy and mood |
| cocaine | powerful stimulant drug that produces temporary increases in alertness an energy |
| depressants | decrease neutral activity -alcohol |
| alcohol | depressant drug that slows down the activity of the central nervous system |
| hallucinogens | distortions in perception and cognition |
| marijuana | mild hallucinogen that alters percpetions |
| psychological addiction | stressed, think you need it, no physical addicion |
| physical addiction | withdraw, will get sick w/o it, body craves it |
| tolerance | the reduced response to a drug after repeated use, leading an individual to consume larger doses in order to achieve the same effect. -body physically craves it |
| withdraw | the discomfort and distress that follow when a person who is physically or psychologically dependent on a drug stops using it |
| sensation | process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment |
| sensory coding | transduction -senses convert to nerve impulse -thalamus (not smell) |
| transduction | a fiscal stimulus is converted into brain activity |
| absolute threshold | minimum amt of physical energy necessary to produce a sensation 50% of time |
| just noticeable differences (JND) | perceivable difference in change of stimulus -pitch 1/3% -weight 2% -loudness 10% -taste 20% -light 8% |
| weber's law | JND is in constant proportion of the intensity of the original stimulus |
| sensory adaptation | the principle that one sense may influence another OR: forget UNCHANGED stimuli, like cold pool, your clothes |
| selective attention | brain takes in all sensory info -filters out info deemed unimportant sensory adaptation |
| sensory interaction | senses work with and influence each other -flavor (taste and smell) |
| synesthesia | a condition in which stimulation of 1 sense arouses senation in another |
| vision (energy sense) | -transduction: occurs in the retina (rods/cones) -accomodation: lens bending light waves toward retinas cones -blue (short wavelength) -green (medium wavelength) -red (long wavelength) all colorblind colors (in males) |
| hearing (energy sense) | -movement of air molecules pitch: wavelengths amplitudes: loudness(higher waves=louder, lower waves=quieter_ -transduction in the cochlea |
| smell (chemical sense) | -transduction occurs in Olfactory bulb -pheromones: chemical messengers -ONLY one that doesn't go to thalamus -smell goes directly to association cortex (temporal lobe). explains why sell is closely related to memory (goes thru limbic system) |
| taste (chemical sense) | -gustation -transduction occurs in taste buds) -sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (brothy/meaty), oleogustus (fatty acid) -people differ taste sensitivty -supertaster, medium tasters, nontasters |
| touch (tactile sense) | -transduction occurs from receptors in skin -amt of receptors differ across the body -most sensitive: hands/fingers, bottom of feet, face/mouth, genitals -least sensitive: back, forearms, calves |
| gate control theory (pain) | some pain has higher authority than others -scratch= high priority, itch= low priority phantom limb: brain creates pain, even when nothings there |
| vestibular sense | controls balance semicircular canals and cerbellum (tactile sense not touch) |
| kinesthetic sense | sense of individual body parts receptors in the muscle tissues and joins |
| transduction | a fiscal stimulus is converted into brain activity. senses convert to nerve impulse |
| retina | surface at the back of the eye onto which the lens focuses light rays |
| blind spot | area in the retina where the optic nerve exits that contains no photoreceptor cells |
| optic nerve | structure that conveys visual info away from the retina to the brain |
| lens | clear structure behind the pupil that bends light toward the retina |
| accommodation | changes in the shape of the lens of the eye to enable the seeing of close and far objects |
| nearsightedness | condition where nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina |
| farsightedness | condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because near objects focus in front of the retina |
| photoreceptor cells | specialized neurons in the retina that convert light energy into neural signals |
| rods | photoreceptors for dim light that produce only black and white sensations |
| dark adaptation | process by which the eyes increase their sensitivity to low levels of light after being in darkness |
| trichromatic theory | theory that the retina contains 3 different types of color receptors, one most sentice to red, one to green and one to blue. all the colors we perceive result from the combined stimulation of these 3 types of cones |
| opponent process theory | theory that color perception is controlled by 3 opposing pairs of color receptors: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white. when one color in a pair is activated, the other is inhibited |
| fovea | the central focal point in the retina around which the eyes cones are concentrated and where visual activity (sharpness of vision) is highest |
| cones | photoreceptors that are sensitive to color |
| afterimage | visual sensation that remains after the original stimulus is removed, often appearing in complementary (opposite colors) |
| ganglion cells | neurons in the retina that receive visual info from bipolar cells and transmit it to the brain, which together form the optic nerve |
| color vision deficiency | Condition in which a person lacks one or more types of cone receptors in the retina, leading to difficulty distinguishing certain colors |
| dichromatism | A type of color vision deficiency in which a person has only two functioning types of cone cells in the retina instead of the normal three, resulting in difficulty distinguishing certain colors. |
| monochromatism | A rare form of color vision deficiency in which a person has only one type of cone receptor—or no functioning cones—resulting in seeing the world in shades of gray. |
| prosopagnosia (face blindess) | inability to recognize familiar faces |
| blindsight | Person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them, usually due to damage to the primary visual cortex |
| wavelengths (pitch) | Distance between peaks of a sound wave, which determines the pitch of the sound; Shorter wavelengths = higher pitches, longer wavelengths = lower pitches |
| amplitudes (loudness) | Height of a sound wave, which determines the loudness of a sound; larger amplitudes = louder sounds, smaller amplitudes = softer sounds |
| place theory | proposition that higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea |
| volley theory | Theory that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, or volleys, to achieve a combined frequency of firing that matches the freqeucny of a sound wave |
| frequency theory | proposition that pitch is decoded from the rate at which hair cells of the basilar membrane are firing |
| sound localization | Process by which the brain identifies the location or origin of a sound in space |
| conduction deafness | hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea, such as the eardrum or the ossicles |
| sensorineural deafness | hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or to the auditory nerve, which prevents sound signals from being transmitted properly to the brain |
| olfactory | sense of smell, which detects and processes odor molecules in the environment |
| pheromones in the olfactory system | chemical signals released by 1 individual that can affect the behavior or physiology of another person, often detected through the sense of smell |
| gustation | sense of taste, which detects and interprets chemical molecules in food and drinks |
| types of taste | sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami |
| taste receprots | specialized sensory cells located in the taste buds that detect chemical molecules in food and drinks and send signals to the brain to produce the perception of taste |
| supertasters | individuals who experience taste sensations, especially bitter flavors, more intensely than the average due to having a higher than normal # of tastebuds |
| medium tasters | individuals with an average sensitivity to taste, who perceive flavors at a moderate intensity compared to supertasters and nontasters. |
| nontasters | individuals who experience taste sensations less intensely than average due to having fewer taste buds than most people. |
| skin | the body’s largest sensory organ, which contains receptors that detect touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. |
| gate control theory | The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that can either block pain signals or allow them to pass to the brain, explaining how pain is perceived. |
| phantom limb | brain creates pain, when nothing's there |
| vestibular sense | controls balance |
| semicircular canals | Three fluid-filled, loop-shaped structures in the inner ear that help detect rotational or angular movement of the head and maintain balance. |
| kinesthesis | sense of individually body parts, receptors in the muscle tissues and joints |
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