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Child Psych test 4
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Emotional Development (Children) | When children are treated with sensitivity, they learn to trust others, express their own needs, and empathize with others feelings |
| Coping skills | Personal mechanisms for managing distress |
| Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development | 8 stages of life Psychosocial changes that occur over the lifespan (defined by a central conflict) |
| Psychosocial Stages Childhood & adolescence | trust versus mistrust (infancy) autonomy versus shame and doubt (toddler years) initiative versus guilt (preschool years) industry versus inferiority (elementary school years) identity versus role confusion (adolescence) |
| Caregiver, takes care of needs Response to child trying to do things on their own Learn there are rules (how parent teaches roles) Search for self, not typical resolved at this point in life | |
| Psychosocial Stages Adulthood | intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood) generativity versus stagnation (middle age): What have I accomplished? integrity versus despair (retirement years): Are you happy with your life? |
| Who establishes Childs responses? | We (caregiver, parents, other people) establish Childs responses |
| Strengths of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development | Emphasizes important social and emotional changes that occur throughout life Reflects synthesis of individual characteristics, maturation, adaptation to environment, ongoing reflection, opportunities and hardships |
| Limitations of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development | Observations are largely anecdotal Theory based on observations of men and boys Underestimates effects of culture |
| Attachment | enduring emotional tie that unites child to caregivers (Bond) Need for relatedness |
| Ethological theory (John Bowlby) | Human capacity for close relationships evolved over millions of years A way for small children to stay safe and close to parents o Safe haven o Secure base o Proximity maintenance |
| Forms of First Attachments | Pre-attachment Attachment-in-the-making Clear-cut attachment |
| Pre-attachment | (birth – 6 to 12 weeks) Using social signals to elicit care ex. Smile and cry/ stop crying when caregiver comes |
| Attachment-in-the-making | (6 to 12 weeks – 6 to 8 months) Singling out special people who regularly provide care |
| Clear-cut attachment | (6 to 8 months – 18 months) Protest at separation, seek out for comfort Show anxiety toward strangers |
| Reciprocal relationships | From 1 ½ to 2 years (active participation in relationships) Working models of attachment (mental templates for how activities with caregivers unfold) |
| Caregivers instill secure attachments when they show these qualities: | Contingent responses to children’s needs and gestures (establish routines) Regular expressions of affection (communicate love and pleasure) Openness to young children influencing the pace and direction of interaction (allow infant to take the lead) |
| Early childhood Attachment | Children learn other caregivers can be dependable and trustworthy Children become attached to peers Start to innate relationships (ask others to play with them) |
| Middle childhood and adolescence | Venture further outside nuclear family (friends and romantic partners) Seek subtler forms of affection from parents and teachers (want to be/look cool) |
| Do Children’s personal characteristics influence caregiver interactions | yes |
| Children with disabilities | Special circumstances play only a minor role in their attachments; most develop secure attachments with responsive parents |
| Community as a setting for family attachments | Cultural practices affect parents’ caring for infants Family resources affect parents’ relationships with babies (Negative effects of poverty, harsh conditions, parents’ stress) Network of caregivers exists in some regions of the world |
| Good relationships with teachers | Associated with better student conduct Foster students’ school engagement and academic achievement |
| Age-related factors in relationships with teachers Preschool and elementary years | close bonds with teachers; feeling safe and thriving |
| Age-related factors in relationships with teachers Middle school years | Students may feel anonymous at school Supportive relationships with teachers help students enjoy school |
| Age-related factors in relationships with teachers High school | students often have adversarial relationships with teachers (us v. them) • students that have supportive relationships with teachers are more likely to be well adjusted and to complete high school than are students without these connections |
| Applications of Attachment Research for Teacher– Student Relationships | Be patient as students get to know you Nurture bonds in children of all ages; make relationships a priority Go the extra mile for students you do not initially like or understand |
| Emotions | physiological and psychological feelings in response to events that are personally relevant to one’s goals and needs (Energize thoughts and behavior according to circumstances) |
| With in the first 6 months what are the emotions learned | Fear Happiness Disgust Sadness Anger Surprise |
| Sadness | prompts child to seek comfort and reassess goals |
| Happiness | Happiness prompts positive feelings to share with others |
| Anger | spurs child to try a new tactic or abandon an unrealistic goal |
| Emotional contagion | Infants watch others’ emotional expressions |
| Developmental Changes in Emotions | Children begin life with a few basic emotions and gradually add feelings Infants can reconsie emotions in other people. |
| Social Referencing | Toddlers guide their actions in part based on other people’s facial expressions, mannerisms, and tone of voice |
| Self-conscious feelings | Young children gradually expand their emotions to include guilt, embarrassment, pride |
| Children's Developmental Changes in Emotions | Realize that sometimes people have misleading emotional expressions Empathy (concern for others) Learn to regulate their emotions - due to release of cortisol (stress hormone) Coping skills develop Hormone changes influence negative feelings |
| Sex differences in Developmental Changes in Emotions | Similar in infancy After age 2: boys show more anger; girls show more positive emotions and more sadness, fear, and guilt |
| Role of biology in differences (rising hormones at puberty) | • Increased moodiness and depression in girls • Increased aggression and rebelliousness in boys |
| Role of socialization in differences | Parents more likely to talk about fear and sadness with daughters and anger with sons |
| Culture | children learn emotions from observing others |
| individualistic cultures | consider it healthy to reveal one’s innermost feelings are encouraged to express the full gamut of their emotions –including happiness, pride, frustration, and anger |
| Collectivistic cultures | disapprove of displays of anger, frustration, and pride because they reflect self-absorption and disrupt a group’s harmony |
| Socioeconomic status: | more emotional and behavioral problems among children in low-income environment |
| Social-emotional | Association between emotional health of children and their level of academic achievement Advancement in social-emotional skills, reductions in problem behaviors |
| Supporting Emotional Well-Being in Children | Create a warm and inclusive atmosphere at school Notice children’s facial expressions; invite them to express their feelings Help children relax; address needs when children experience great stress |
| Special education services provide supports for children with | emotional or behavioral disorder (EBD) |
| Characteristics students may exhibit along with EBD | Inability to learning that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teacher Inappropriate behavior or feelings under normal circumstances |
| School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (S WPBS): | framework for fostering everyone’s emotional health and good behavior |
| Teir 1 | Establishing expectations for a safe, nurturing, and productive learning environment (all students) |
| Tier 2: | Addressing needs of students who regularly commit minor offenses (10–15 percent of students) |
| Tier 3: | Providing interventions for students who exhibit even more serious behavior (5–10 percent) • Tier 3 may or may not involve special education services |
| Depression | feeling sad, discouraged, hopeless, worthless • Rare before adolescence; increases dramatically in adolescence |
| Anxiety disorder | worry excessively and find it difficult to control their bothersome thought and feelings Generalized anxiety: worry unreasonably about a wide variety of things Post-traumatic stress disorder: a type of anxiety disorder, exposure to overwhelming events |
| Conduct disorder | chronic misbehavior without shame or guilt Aggression toward people and animals, destruction of property, theft, serious rule violations (four times higher for boys than girls) |
| Evidence-based treatments | Anxiety and depression – Cognitive-behavioral therapy Conduct disorders – Behavior therapy or cognitive-behavioral therapy |
| Supporting Students with Emotional and Behavioral Conditions | Communicate that you care; help everyone feel safe Provide extra structure for highly anxious students Respect children’s autonomy |
| Temperament: | a child’s typical and somewhat stable ways of responding to events, novel stimulation, and personal impulses |
| Personalities: | distinctive ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling • Shaped by child’s temperament and by intellectual interests, habits, andother environmental factors |
| Temperament features | Genetic basis; also influenced by children’s relationships and experiences Partly determines the kind of care that works best for the child |
| Research on neurological basis of temperament (Mary Rothbart) The Three dimensions of temperament | • Extraversion/surgency: high levels of optimistic anticipation, activity • Negative affectivity: shy, fearful, frustrated, not easily soothed • Effortful control: strategically focus and shift attention; plan for the future |
| Personality features | Integration of biologically based emotional tendencies with experience, relationships, and intellectual interests Changes in response to demands of their upbringing |
| Five relatively constant dimensions of personality (The Big Five Model) | • Extraversion • Agreeableness • Conscientiousness • Neuroticism • Openness |
| Helping Students Be Themselves | Identify temperaments you naturally prefer, as well as those who push your buttons Consider children’s temperaments when forming groups Communicate your expectations about acceptable behaviors |
| Sense of self | knowledge, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about self Elements of self-perception • Self-concept, self-esteem, self-worth • Addresses the question, “Who am I?” |
| Low self-esteem | a focus mainly on negative features |
| High self-esteem | a focus mainly on positive and favorable features |
| Functions of children’s sense of self | • Helps children understand things that happen to them • Motivates them to engage in behaviors others approve • Influences their reactions to events • Helps them make choices relevant to personal goals (future self) |
| Sense of self helps a person find a comfortable niche, how so? | Basic need to feel competent, likable, and well intentioned Typically, children find ways to protect their self-image |
| Factors Influencing Self-Perceptions (Positive) | Responsive care and affection from parents/caregivers Communication of expectations from adults Being accepted as they are (abilities and inabilities) Having friends Sense of accomplishments |
| Coping mechanisms to protect self-perceptions | Self-handicapping behaviors: too little effort, unattainably high goals, procrastinating, cheating, making excuses, using alcohol or drugs |
| Developmental Trends in the Self | Children compare self to others Children construct increasingly abstract, integrated, and multifaceted understandings of who they are Most students adopt standards for evaluating their appearance and accomplishments that they have learned from others |
| Contingent self worth | overall sense of self that is highly dependent on others’ opinions – emotional roller coaster |
| Characteristics of the Self During Infancy | Lovable, positive perceptions (if secure bonds form) Feeling successful and seeing self as a separate entity from others Feeling of mastery and confidence in what they can do |
| Characteristics of the Self During Early childhood | A general optimistic bias View autobiographical self as cognitive abilities develop (memories) View self as bad or good based on behavior standards |
| Characteristics of the Self During Middle childhood | Multifaceted view of self Adept at making comparisons, dealing with critical feedback More sensible about talents and limitations Decline from the overconfidence of earlier years – more realistic levels |
| Characteristics of the Self During Early adolescence | Concern about how others see them Greater concern on appearance, popularity, academic standing Ability grouping: (students are assigned to academic classes with varying levels of difficulty) Use of social networking- risk for cyberbullying |
| Self examination in early adolescence changes in two ways | Imaginary audience: self-critical preoccupation with appearance Personal fable: think their own feelings are unique |
| Identity diffusion | no commitment to career or belief system |
| Foreclosure | commitment to career and beliefs chosen by parents actively exploring career paths and value systems |
| Moratorium | Identity achievement—after moratorium, committed to career and values |
| Identity achievement | after moratorium, committed to career and values |
| Margaret Beale Spencer’s Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory | Children develop self-perception as they interact, use available resources, build on assets, confront risks, cope, and achieve Example: adjusting to a new city and new school |
| Ethnic-racial identity: | view of ethnic heritage, racial background, family origins, affiliations, and effects on their adult lives |
| Changes in ethnic-racial identity over a lifetime | Aware of group differences by kindergarten Absorb messages from parents and media about their ethnicity in middle childhood Thoughtful search for ethnic-racial identity in adolescence Adults remain receptive to new views about ethnicity and race |
| Gender: | children develop gender schemas early in life |
| Gender identity: | embracing being male, female, or alternate gender • Nonbinary (not distinctly male/female); transgender (different from sex assigned at birth) |
| Emerges from nature, nurture, child’s self-reflection | • Much of the real pressure to develop a gender identity comes from within • Self-socialization: the tendency for children and adolescents to conform to their own ideas about appropriate behaviors • Gender schema theory (Bem, 1981) |
| Culture: | core values from people surrounding the child • Contrast between individualistic societies and collectivistic societies • Adaptive process for immigrant children |
| Enhancing Children’s Sense of Self | Show genuine interest in children’s well-being; focus on age- related developments Promote success on academic, social, and physical tasks Be honest about children’s shortcomings; guide them in overcoming limitations |
| Understanding what others think (theory of mind) | • Infancy: intersubjectivity and awareness of others’ intentionality; later engage in social referencing • Early childhood: increasingly aware of other’s mental states • By age 4 or 5 children appreciate a false belief |
| False Belief Task | Sally puts marble in basket, leaves, marble is removed, sally comes back, thinks marble is still there |
| Understanding what others think (theory of mind) • Middle childhood: | understand that others interpret events (maybe differently than they do) |
| Understanding what others think (theory of mind) • Early adolescence: | heightened sensitivity to social interaction; greater perspective taking; engage in recursive thinking (what I think you’re thinking about me) |
| Understanding what others think (theory of mind) • Late adolescence: | skillful in identifying people’s thinking, intentions, and needs; development of high-level perspective taking |
| Robert Selman’s theory of social perspective taking Level 0 and 1 | Level 0: Egocentric—incapable of seeing another’s perspective Level 1: Subjective—children realize that people have different thoughts and feelings as well as different physical features; simplistic, one-dimensional view of another’s perspective |
| Level 2 | Level 2: Second-person, reciprocal—recognize mixed feelings; see that people may feel differently than their behaviors |
| Level 3 | Level 3: Third-person, mutual perspective taking—take an outsider’s perspective on interpersonal relationships; attempt to satisfy their own and another’s needs simultaneously, grasp the importance of cooperation, compromise, and trust |
| level 4 | Level 4: Societal, symbolic—recognize that people are affected by many factors; understand social persuasion |
| Limitations of Selman’s theory | Underestimation of young children’s capabilities Error of beliefs that children progress through levels of social perspective taking Social awareness is not guaranteed by basic maturational processes Progression - highly dependent on social experience |
| Applications of Selman’s work | Adults and educators can nudge young people toward slightly more advanced perspective taking |
| Social-cognitive biases: | predispositions to interpret or respond to social situations inparticular ways |
| Examples of Social-cognitive biases: | Distortions in thinking, hasty conclusions about others, stereotyping, prejudice May decrease as children realize that individuals who share membership in a category are similar in some ways / different in others May increase if parents incite prejudice |
| Awareness of unfair treatment among adolescent victims of prejudice | Develop coping strategies; may become depressed and at risk |
| Exceptionalities affecting social cognition | Some children with disabilities are limited in ability to understand others’ perspectives or detect emotions Conditions include fragile X syndrome, ADHD, and autism |
| Social setting: can enhance children’s awareness | Influence of people and culture with whom children are socialized Discussions with adults about what people think, feel, and want can Sociodramatic play in which children play defined roles Influence of online communications |
| Fostering Development of Social Cognition | Talk about mental concepts in age-appropriate ways Encourage children to look at situations from other people’s perspectives Help children tune in to the nonverbal cues that can help them “read people’s minds” |
| Self-Regulation | involves the ability to resist an impulse Requires executive functions (management of mental processes) • setting goals • planning tasks • controlling impulses • managing emotions • motivating oneself • tracking progress |
| Growth in Self-Regulation | Children learn to control when and where they pursue their desires. Children improve in their ability to guide actions in light of future consequences. Children increasingly make judgments about how well they are performing a task. |
| Delay gratification | Marshmallow experiment Mischel, (1970) Greater gratification if you wait, the ability to wait for something better. |
| Self-regulation advances simultaneously on three fronts. | Behaviorally Emotionally Cognitively |
| Children increasingly talk their way, and eventually think their way, through situations. | Inner speech (Vygotsky) |
| External standards are slowly internalized | Developing a conscience |
| Willpower builds in early and middle childhood and then takes a temporary dip during adolescence. - Why the dip? | Pleasure in taking risks |
| Genetic factors: | differences in brain circuits for controlling impulses (impulsive temperaments) |
| Environmental factors: | socialization practices in families and in cultures Affect how children regulate their thinking, feeling, and behavior Influence expectations Shape coping strategies |
| Promoting Self-Regulation | Invite young children to plan activities Scaffold the full range of self-regulation abilities Provide choices; provide checklists to guide task completion |
| Promoting Self-Regulation | Use suggestions rather than direct commands as much as possible Teach specific self-regulation skills • Self-monitoring • Self-instructions (to remind themselves) • Self-motivation • Self-evaluation |
| Promoting Self-Regulation | Tailor support to the needs of children with disabilities Demonstrate willpower; promote self-regulation by modeling Shield adolescents from their unique developmental vulnerabilities Discourage risky activities |
| Motivation: | a process that arouses, maintains, and guides behavior toward a goal (moving us forward) |
| Intrinsic (motivation): | from within oneself or factors inherent in the task (of value, choose todo it) |
| Extrinsic (motivation): | to attain or avoid certain consequences in the outside world |
| Factors Affecting Intrinsic Motivation | Natural predisposition to explore their environment Striving for consistency -Resolving disequilibrium (don't like tension) Self-efficacy: activities in which they think they can be successful Self-determination:activities for which they have autonomy |
| Developmental trends in intrinsic motivation | • Situational interest versus personal interest • Lower motivation for learning school subjects; higher motivation for activities with instrumental value • Internalized motivation (adopting some of the values and priorities of the people around us) |
| Factors Affecting Extrinsic Motivation | Operant conditioning (B. F. Skinner): children choose behaviors that lead to pleasant consequences (reinforcers) Concepts of behavioral learning Reinforcement in the classroom - Chance to achieve desired behavior and receive a reward (reinforcer) |
| Concepts of behavioral learning | • Primary reinforcers: rewards that satisfy built-in needs/desires (food,water,sex) • Secondary reinforcers: rewards associated with primary reinforcers (Money,grades) • Vicarious reinforcement: observing peers being reinforced (see someone earn reward) |
| Reinforcement in the classroom | Chance to achieve desired behavior and receive a reward (reinforcer) |
| Factors Affecting Extrinsic Motivation | Punishment |
| Punishment | (consequence; decreases frequency of the response) • Tool of last resort; does not teach more productive behavior • Vicarious punishment results from observing peer being punished |
| Fostering Self-Regulation with Classroom Manageme | Establish, maintain, restore positive relationships with students Make expectations transparent |
| Establish, maintain, restore positive relationships with students | Establish:cultivate sense of trust and concern; know students individually Maintain: nurture relationships; 5-to-1 ratio of positive to negative interactions Restore: one-to-one conversations, showing concern, solving a problem together, starting fresh |
| Achievement goal theory | a conceptual framework for distinguishing adaptive and maladaptive motivations for academic success |
| Mastery goals: | gain knowledge from mistakes, learn, persevere |
| Performance goals: | achieve positive outcomes (grades, approval) |
| Performance-avoidance goal: | shy away from challenging tasks |
| • Performance-approach goal: | Focus on achieving positive outcomes |
| Social goals | associated with basic need for relatedness • Forming/maintaining friendly or intimate relationships; gaining others’ approval; helping others and ensuring their welfare; achieving status • Students’ social goals affect their behavior |
| Attributions | beliefs about causes of events, failures or successes • Students form various attributions—self-constructed interpretations |
| Internal versus external: | Factors within themselves or outside factors Internal:easy test, studied External: hard test, graded bad |
| Stable versus unstable: | factors that won’t change versus factors that vary from one occasion to the next Stable: studied the same way unstable: different style every test |
| Controllable versus uncontrollable: | factors they can influence or change versus factors they cannot influence or change Controllable: uncontrollable: ump |
| Mastery orientation | I can do it |
| learned helplessness | I can’t do it |
| Growth mind-set: | believing ability improves with effort and practice |
| Fixed mind-set: | believing ability is inherited and cannot be improved |
| Children’s Explanations for Performance | Experience, reflection, and socialization play a part in attributions, mind-sets, and other mental frameworks • Others’ attributions can be quite explicit • “You did it! You’re so smart!” |
| Adults | Indirectly communicate attributions (criticism of poor performance – imply that the student was not “trying hard enough”) Indirectly communicate low ability (praise for easy success, unneeded assistance on easy tasks, allowing children to give up) |
| Motivation in a Developmental System Sex differences in motivation (boys’ and girls’ interests diverge) | Boy’s interest in a specific topic, where as girl’s interest in literacy and creative activities Values affect motivation |
| Attributions affect motivation (girls show more of a fixed mind-set) Goals/ambitions affect motivation (boys exhibiting more ambitious career aspirations) |
Created by:
natalieeash