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Bio101 Unit 4
Cell Respiration, Photosynthesis, Mitosis, Meiosis
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cellular respiration | Most important energy producing reaction in cell Catabolic, exergonic Goal is to release PE in glucose covalent bonds |
| Reduced electron | Electron acceptor, become more negatively charged, gains energy NAD+ FAD+ ADP |
| Oxidized electron | Electron donor, becomes more positively charged, loses energy NADH FADH2 ATP |
| Glycolysis | Breakdown glucose to make some ATP Anaerobic Cytoplasm C6H12O6 + 2 ATP -> 2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP |
| Pyruvate to acetylene Coenzyme A | Convert pyruvate to acetyl CoA, so it can enter citric acid/ Krebs cycle Mitochondrial matrix 2 pyruvate + 2 CoA -> 2 A CoA + 2NADH (goes to electron transport chain) + 2CO2 |
| Citric Acid Cycle | Mitochondrial matrix Complete catabolism of glucose - which rn is just Acetyl CoA Remaining chem nrg stored in NADH & FADH2 Acetyl CoA enters cycle and converts oxaloacetate to citrate, but by the end of the cycle, oxaloacetate has been restored |
| Citric Acid Cycle | 2 Acetyl CoA (oxaloacetate) -> 4 CO2 + 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2 ATP |
| Oxidative Phosphorylation | Two main steps Electron transport chain Production of ATP via chemiosmosis (ATP Synthase) Molecs involved in these reactions are embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane Reactants found in both the mitochondrial matrix and intermembrane space |
| ETC | Series of proteins, act as electron carriers, becoming reduced and then oxidize, passing e- down chain E- donated by NADH & FADH2 Each redox rxc releases nrg Oxygen acts is final electron acceptor (combines with/ H+ prod. water) |
| ETC | E- carriers use that energy to transport H+ ions across membrane, from matrix to intermembrane space, against their concentration gradient Generates a very steep gradient of H+ ions across the membrane |
| Oxidative Phosphorylation | H+ moves down concentration gradient via enzyme/transport protein called ATP synthase A conformational change in ATP synthase allows it to produce ATP Nrg required to combine ADP and Pi is derived from the redox reactions of ETC Can prod. 26 ATP |
| Fermentation | Energy production in absence of oxygen Carried out by many aerobic prokaryotes, as well as many types of eukaryotes when oxygen becomes depleted Two types; Alcohol and Lactic acid |
| Alcohol Fermentation | Prokaryotes + Yeast (fungi - eukaryotes) Regenerate NAD+ , yields Ethanol and CO2 |
| Lactic Acid Fermentation | Prokaryotes + some fungi Pyruvate -> Lactate + NAD+ Lactobacilli ferment sugars in milk to produce yogurt Many fungi can be used to ferment milk to make cheese |
| Deaminated | Amino acids can be removed to produce nitrogenous wastes like ammonia – and then used as substrates in cellular respiration The remaining carbon skeleton to be converted into metabolic intermediates that generate ATP |
| Ketogenesis | Fatty acids can undergo beta oxidation to prod A CoA for cellular respiration Ketones absorbed from bloodstream by cells throughout body and used as an nrg source Beneficial for conditions (epilepsy ) Excessive ketones can harmful ->ketoacidosis |
| H+ chemiosmosis | ATP synthase pumps H+ back across membrane using nrg of H+ movement to generate ATP (exactly how it does in cell respiration) Chlorophyll absorbs electromagnetic nrg sunlight and converts into e- excitation |
| Ketoacidosis | Caused by a lot of excess ketone Dehydration, confusion, coma seen in patients with diabetes |
| Fermentation | Generate ATP when oxygen absent Cytoplasm Glucose + NAD+ -> ATP ethanol + co2 + lactic acid +NADH (goes back to NAD+ and into glycolysis) |
| Calvin cycle | 1) Carbon fixation CO2 + Rubisco (5-c sug) 2) Reduction ATP + NADPH consumed to prod G3P 3CO2 6ATP 6NADPH consumed 6G3P only 1 can exit cycle 3) Regenerate Rubsico 5 of 6 G3P recombine to generate rubisco, consumes 3ATP |
| Calvin cycle | ATP and NADPH carbon fixation In stroma 3 CO2 + 9ATP + 6NADPH -> G3P Take 6 turns to produce glucose |
| Light reactions | Thylakoids Sunlight present Electromagnetic nrg into chem energy (ATP and NADPH) H2O + photons of light -> ATP + NADPH + O2 Photons of light excite e- Red light absorbed best, green reflected |
| Calvin cycle | Chloroplast stroma (fluid like cytoplasm) No sunlight required Uses NADPH and ATP to build sugars from CO2 (carbon fixation) |
| Light reactions | Photosystem 2, Cytochrome B6F complex, Photosystem 1, H+ chemiosmosis |
| Photosystem I | Absorb light, yield high energy e- e- + NADP+ -> NADPH e- lost replenished by photosystem 2, accepted from Cytochrome b6f complex |
| Cytochrome b6f complex | E- transport chain Plastoquinone - e- acceptor, then transfers e- from Photosystem II to the cytochrome b6f complex Pumps H+ to thylakoid space |
| Photosystem II | light absorbed by e- NRG transfered to plastoquinone (protein) E- replaced by H2O inside of thylakoid space -> yields O2 and h+ |
| G1 phase | After new daughter cell formed Prep cell for DNA replication Cell growth, metabolic activity, and prep for S phase Some cells stop dividing here and exit the cell cycle |
| S phase | DNA replication phase Chromosomes are duplicated |
| G2 phase | Growth, metabolic activity, prep for mitosis |
| M phase | -mitosis (nuclear division); separate nuclear contents in chromosomes with DNA -cytokinesis (cell division(; 2 new daughter cells |
| Cyclin/Cyclin dependent kinases protein complexes | G1 S and M phases, regulated by complex, only active during a specific phase 1 Cyclin and 1 CDK |
| G1 checkpoint | Access internal and external environment Check damage + repair if needed Nutrient state and singles from other cells Can exit cell cycle and go to G0 |
| G0 | State where cells are in, if they leave cell cycle Can reenter if needed (in liver) In adults, many permanently stay in this state |
| G2 checkpoint | Cell pause to repair DNA damage if needed |
| M checkpoint | Cell make sure chromosomal segregation is proceeding before complete cell division |
| Genome structure | Linear chromosomes Diploid structure; 2N 23 different chromosomes; total 46 Histone proteins wrap around DNA Histtones protein + DNA = Chromatin Centromere - middle of chromosome |
| Sister chromatids | Duplicated in S phase Attached at centromere 4 chromosomes -> 4 chromosomes with 8 sister chromatids |
| Cohesins | Proteins that hold sister chromatids together Not to be mistaken with cohesion (water sticking to other water molecules) |
| Chlorophyll | Converts light energy into e- excitation Creates H+ gradient that can be used to generate ATP via ATP synthase |
| Prophase | Chromatid starts to condense - Chromosomal condensation Centrosomes split form mitotic spindle which moves toward opposite sides of cell |
| Photosystems | protein-pigment complexes in membranes that capture light energy, excite e-, convert light nrg into chem nrg PSII splits water releasing O2, H+, and e- PSI, uses e- from PSII (passed from ETC) to generate NADPH and then ATP |
| Prometaphase | Chromatin condense even further Chromosomes + chromatids Kintechore forms assemble @ middle of centromere microtubules attach to kintechores, allowing spondaic to organize chromosomes Nuclear envelope breaks down |
| Metaphase | Nuclear envelope dissolved Poles of mitotic spindle attach to each chromosomes Metaphase plate (chromosomes in line, equidistant from each pole) |
| Mitosis steps | Prophase -> Prometaphase -> metaphase -> anaphase -> telophase |
| G1/S | Cdks respond to extracellular signals and decide whether or not to activate the S-Cdks and promote entry into S phase |
| S-Cdks | activate the proteins necessary for DNA replication and directly activate DNA replication |
| M-Cdks | s promote chromatin condensation and assembly of the mitotic spindle (cellular machinery essential for segregation of chromosomes) |
| Anaphase | Holding sister chromatids together (cohesins cleaved) Allows mitotic spindle separate sister chromatids, now implement daughter chromosomes Each mitotic spindle connected to its own chromosomes |
| Telophase | Mitotic spindle dissembles, not attached to daughter chromosomes Chromatin decondenses Form new nuclear envelopes , mitosis complete once |
| Haploid | Of a cell or nucleus having a single set of unpaired chromosomes Sex cells (gametes) produced through meiosis |
| Beta oxidation | Metabolic process of breaking down fatty acids into A CoA, which generates energy in form of NADH and FADH2 |
| Cytokinesis | In animal cells (with no cell walls), actin forms ring that contracts @ old metaphase plate, forming cleavage furrow Final stage of mitosis where complete cell division happens and two daughter cells are separated |
| Tumor suppressors | Specialized proteins that can stop cell cycle, allowing for time for damage/errors Inhibit cyclin/cdk f(x) P53, P21, Rb; most likely has mutation in cancers |
| Apoptosis | Cell death |
| Cancer | Cell act abnormally Cell damage, but don't stop at checkpoints, pay error one One location, forming tumors Cells can migrate thru body forming tumors in new locations - metastasis |
| Difference between photosystem I and photosystem II | Photosystem II (PSII) is the first to act, splitting water to release oxygen and providing electrons, while Photosystem I (PSI) uses these electrons, along with more light energy, to produce NADPH |
| Telophase | 2 nuclear envelopes form |
| Prometaphase | Disintegration of nuclear envelope |
| Prophase | Mitotic spindle forming |
| Anaphase | Daughter chromosome |
| Mitotic spindle | Organizes chromosomes and separates sister chromatids during mitosis |
| Actin | form the contractile ring around and pinching parent cell into two new daughter cells |
| Somatic cells | Make up most of our cells (skin, muscle, bone) Diploid Contain 46 chromosomes (2x23) |
| Homologs | Matching pair of each individual chromosomes (the 2x23) Homologous pair |
| Gametes | Cell that aren't diploid, they are haploid Egg and sperm cells 23 chromosomes total |
| Asexual reproduction | Single cell reproduction into two new daughter cells |
| Sexual reproduction | How most cells reproduce Two parents contribute to half of the offsprings genetic content, producing an offspring that is not identical to either parent |
| Sexual reproduction | Gamete cells are produced by parents specifically for |
| Zygote | Egg and sperm fuse with one another during fertilization to create a _ Which will develop into a mature offspring Egg and sperm responsible for providing half the genetic content Diploid cell |
| Kinetochore | Protein structure on centromere where spindle microtubules attach during cell division to pull sister chromatids apart |
| Metastasis | Spread of cancer cells from original site to other parts of the body, forming secondary tumors |
| Zygotes | Diploid, form after egg and sperm fuse during sexual reproduction |
| Meiosis | Specialized version of the cell cycle, ultimately generates haploid rather than diploid daughter cells No m phase, two meiotic stages |
| Embryo | Early development stage in multicellular organism After fertilization until major body parts begin forming Fertilization -> 8th week of pregnancy Phase involves rapid c division & differentiation as the organism develops Contained w/in seeds in plants |
| Meiosis I | Separation of homologs |
| Meiosis II | Separation of sister chromatids |
| Diploid | Two sets of chromosomes, somatic cells produced through mitosis |
| Chromatin | DNA and histone proteins that make up chromosomes Uncoiled, thread-like form of DNA and proteins |
| Centromere | Region of chromosome where two sister chromatids are joined together Also site where mitotic spindle attach during cell division |
| Centrosome | Organelle that serves as microtubule organizer of cell |
| Mitotic spindle | Structure made of microtubules Associated proteins that separate chromosomes during mitosis Originates from centrosomes |
| Chromosome | tightly condensed X shape structures that chromatin forms during cell division |
Created by:
phillipchristopherr