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Bio 130 Midterm 3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Hardy-Weinberg equations | P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 p + q = 1 |
| P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 | genotypes p^2 - AA 2pq - Aa q^2 - aa |
| p+q=1 | alleles p - A q - a |
| Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium | NO natural selection NO nonrandom mating (inbreeding, sexual selection) NO gene flow NO genetic drift NO mutation |
| H-W equilibrium | allele frequencies will not change in a population in the absence of evolutionary influences |
| Evolution | allele frequency change in a population over time/over generations |
| Evolution | selection nonrandom mating (inbreeding, sexual selection) gene flow genetic drift mutation |
| biological fitness | the ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in an environment survival of the fittest passing on your alleles to your offspring |
| natural selection | process by which organisms with traits that help the survivor to reproduce and pass down that trait |
| natural selection example | brown beetles eventually turn black to hide in the lava rock |
| gene flow | evolution by MIGRATION new organisms migrating in or out of a population, can change allele frequency |
| gene flow example | dull blue-jays live on opposite side of mountain from bright blue-jays. some dull-colored jays migrate and mate with bright colored jays and eventually their offspring are mixed genes |
| genetic drift | a change in allele frequency driven by random events, pure CHANCE |
| genetic drift example | gray and brown mice live on an island. after a hurricane (population bottleneck), only gray mice are left, forming a new population |
| types of genetic drift: population bottleneck | "genetic narrowing" event that reduces size of population, leaving a smaller population with therefore less genetic diversity events can be natural disasters, diseases, genocide, hunting, etc) |
| example of population bottleneck | the hurricane that wiped out mice only leaving gray ones |
| founder effect | change in allele frequencies because of a group of individuals establishing a new population in a new area |
| founder effect example | a few finches from the mainland are blown by a storm to a new island, only a small number of birds made it there, limited set of alleles |
| nonrandom mating inbreeding | mating between relatives, increases chance of harmful genetic traits in offspring |
| inbreeding example | small populations of cheetahs must interbreed, leads to low fertility, weak immune systems, higher risk of genetic diseases, etc. or people in west Virginia with pink eyes |
| mutation | restores genetic diversity by creating new alleles ALWAYS random |
| mutation exmaple | sickle cell mutation in red blood cells single DNA nucleotide is switched from A to T, codes for new protein - wrong shape |
| ____ are populations in equilibrium, usually some type of evolution is going on | rarely |
| Hardy-Weinberg is an excellent ___ hypothesis | null |
| sexual selection | special case of natural selection those who have a greater ability to obtain or compute with a mate will be more fit because they will be able to reproduce more traits that lead to successful mating will be selected for and become more prevalent |
| bottleneck vs natural selection | bottleneck event has to directly wipe out some of the population. deforestation causes birds to have to select to eat other things - this is natural selection not a bottleneck event bottleneck events are one time, big events that immediately cut off |
| postulates of natural selections (6 keys in 3 ideas) _________________ among the population and this variation must be ________________ | VARIATION BY MUTATION among the population and this variation must be HERITABLE |
| postulates of natural selections (6 keys in 3 ideas) must produce _____________________ (high biotic potential) due to _________________ (reasons why not everyone survives) | must produce MORE OFFSPRING THAN SURVIVE (high biotic potential) due to LIMITING FACTORS (reasons why not everyone survives) |
| postulates of natural selections (6 keys in 3 ideas) as the ________ changes some individuals will have greater _______ than others | as the ENVIRONMENT changes some individuals will have greater FITNESS than others |
| stabilizing selection graph | average value in the middle becomes more common, smooshes graph to center ex: babies born around 7 lbs will have better chance of living |
| disruptive selection graph | average values seperate, two clumps on opposite sides ex: big-beaked birds can eat bigger nuts and small-beaked birds eat smaller nuts |
| directional selection graph | average value is changed to one side ex: big birds (more fat) have advantage after cold snap makes insects hide away in the ground |
| sexual dimorphism | physical differences between males and females of the same species (males are often bigger/more colorful, structure, behaviors) |
| Bateman's principle | 1. the sex with greatest parental investment should be CHOOSY 2. the sex with least parental investment should be as promiscuous as possible and COMPETE for mates |
| in general for Bateman's principle | males compete, females choose (males - quantity, females - quality) |
| monogamous | both sexes care for offspring (and also females can compete and males can choose/raise offspring) |
| sexual reproduction advantages | brings beneficial mutations together purges the genome of harmful mutations |
| sexual reproduction disadvantages | "2-fold" cost of sex (less efficient than asexual reproduction) costly to secure a mate |
| speciation | gray area of science, scientists argue it, not always clear cut |
| morphological species concept | define by differences/similarities in LOOKS (color, size, shape, phenotypes) |
| morphological species concept: advantages widely _______: most ____ forms, including _____ | widely applicable: most life forms, including fossils |
| morphological species concept: disadvantages Definitions are _______ and authoritative What about morphological variation, cryptic species, sexual dimorphism, polymorphic? | Definitions are arbitrary and authoritative What about morphological variation, cryptic species, sexual dimorphism, polymorphic? |
| phylogenetic species concept | defined by similar history/ancestors |
| phylogenetic species concept: advantages Applicable to any type of organism: _____ and _________ Testable & _________ Exact methods and statistics are _________ Provides non-trivial __________ | Applicable to any type of organism: sexual and asexual Testable & quantitative Exact methods and statistics are improving Provides non-trivial classification |
| phylogenetic species concept: disadvantages Somewhat ______ Putting it into practice can be complicated, _______, ______consuming, etc. Phylogenies change with addition of taxa and _____ ________the # of Species (but so what?) | Somewhat arbitrary Putting it into practice can be complicated, expensive, time consuming, etc. Phylogenies change with addition of taxa and data Increases the # of Species (but so what?) |
| Ecological Species Concept | defined by the role/niche of an organism in their ecosystem |
| Ecological Species Concept advantages: easy to _____ | easy to define |
| Ecological Species Concept disadvantages: some species may change their ______/______ over the course of their lifetime /development Some ecological niches ______so that two different species are using the same one | some species may change their habitat/niche) over the course of their lifetime /development Some ecological niches overlap so that two different species are using the same one |
| Ecological Species Concept disadvantages (continued): Sometimes the niche that a species fills is dependent upon what ________species are present in the environment and may change in the absence of these _________. | Sometimes the niche that a species fills is dependent upon what competing species are present in the environment and may change in the absence of these competitors. |
| Biological Species Concept | define by their ability to interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring |
| Biological Species Concept: advantages Criterion is appropriate because it confirms lack of _____ _______ | Criterion is appropriate because it confirms lack of gene flow |
| Biological Species Concept: disadvantages Difficult to apply ______ Applies only to ____ and _____populations What about populations in different _____? Not black and white: | Difficult to apply operationally Applies only to sexual and contemporary populations What about populations in different places? Not black and white: How much reproductive isolation is necessary? How much gene flow is too much? Hybridization? |
| new species can be formed | overtime (evolve into two completely different species) OR immediate (in plants, reproduction can be done wrong, resulting in a whole new plant) |
| reproductive barriers between species: pre-zygotic barriers temporal isolation | mating occurs at different times/seasons |
| reproductive barriers between species: pre-zygotic barriers habitat isolation | populations live too far away, do not meet, geographical isolation |
| reproductive barriers between species: pre-zygotic barriers behavioral isolation | little/no sexual attraction |
| reproductive barriers between species: pre-zygotic barriers (after mating) mechanical isolation | structural differences in genatalia |
| reproductive barriers between species: pre-zygotic barriers (after mating) gametic isolation | gametes fail to unite in fertilization |
| reproductive barriers between species: post-zygotic barriers (after zygote forms) hybrid inviability | hybrid zygotes fail to develop/mature |
| reproductive barriers between species: post-zygotic barriers (after zygote forms) hybrid sterility | fails to produce functional gametes |
| donkeys have 63 (odd) chromosomes and are sterile | hybrid sterility |
| two types of squirrels in Grand Canyon | habitat isolation |
| red/blue salamanders don't recognize each other | behavioral isolation |
| allopatric speciation | geographical barrier (species separated) |
| sympatric speciation | no geographical barrier (species still separated through different behaviors, preferences, niches, etc.) |
| phylogenetic/phylogenetic trees | study of evolution among groups of organisms |
| letters represent | species/organisms |
| nodes represent | ancient common ancestors |
| numbered dots/boxes represent | traits |
| homology | when a group of organisms shared characteristics (because they share a common ancestor with that trait) |
| convergent evolution/analogy/homoplasy | two organisms evolved to have a trait separately (probably due to the environment) |
| monophyletic groups (aka clades) | includes ALL of the descendants of a certain common ancestor but no others |
| synapomorphy | trait defined by a monophyletic group, shared derived trait |
| paraphyletic | includes SOME of the descendants of a common ancestor, but not all |
| polyphyletic | unnatural group defined by something other than common ancestor |
| there is ___ goal for evolution, every species has evolved______ | there is NO goal for evolution, every species has evolved EQUALLY |
| parsimony | we choose the simplest tree - the most parsimonous |
| all life on earth shares ____ common ancestor | one |
| evolution change in _____ frequency in a population over generations, after millions of years this results in ______ | allele, speciation |
| scientific theory | best explanation of how the universe works supported by numerous lines of evidence much more than a hypothesis ex: theory of gravity, theory of evolution |
| 1. static model | species arise separately and do not change over time |
| static model disproved by | everything! evolution: mutation/speciation/gene flow/genetic drift transitional fossils/fossil record anatomical homologies, vestigial traits, atavisms embryos/developmental homologies DNA/molecular homologies |
| 2. transformation | species arise separately and change over time in order to adapt to the changing environment |
| transformation model disproved by | (supported by evolution) transitional fossils/fossil record anatomical homologies, vestigial traits, atavisms embryos/developmental homologies DNA/molecular homologies |
| 3. separate types | species change over time. new species can arise, but not from common ancestor, each group of species (plants vs animals) |
| separate types disproved by | transitional fossils/fossil record DNA/molecular homologies |
| 4. common descent (ACTUAL THEORY) | all species derive from a common ancestor species can change over time, new species can arise |
| common descent is supported by | everything! evolution transitional fossils/fossil record anatomical homologies, vestigial traits, atavisms embryos/developmental homologies DNA/molecular homologies +biogeography |
| fossil records law of superposition | older fossils in older rock, newer more recent fossils in newer rock |
| radiometric dating allows scientists to determine ___ of rock in which the fossils are found | age |
| prokaryotic fossils - _______ years ago eukaryotic fossils - ______ years ago | prokaryotic - 3.5 billion (OLDEST FOSSILS) eukaryotic - 1.2 billion |
| missing links | not all organisms make fossils, the right things have to happen at the first time |
| how fossils are made | dead organism rapidly buried in soil water seeps into the soil and brings up minerals that cover the organism tissue replaced by minerals, bone is turned to rock erosion of sediment or human removal --> fossil exposed |
| transitional fossils | any fossil remains of a life form that exhibits transitional features - traits in a fossil species that are INTERMEDIATE between ancestral and derived species |
| examples of transitional fossils | dinosaur retile scales to feathered birds fish fins to limbs digits to one horse hoof jaw bones to ear bones |
| homologies: anatomical | organisms with similar functions OR inherit it from an ancestor, whether you use it or not |
| homologies example | bone structure in wings, flippers, arms, and legs (similar) |
| analogies example | wings of bugs vs bats vs birds (different) |
| homologies show ancestral _______ between organisms, they inherited a pattern that got ______ for their function | connection, modified |
| vestigial trait | anatomical homologies that has lost its function ex: tailbone, Goosebumps, snake pelvis these were selected against |
| atavism | reversion back to ancestral trait (we keep the code in our body and can mutate for that code) ex: human with tail, humans with extra nipples |
| homologies: developmental | similarities between embryos |
| homologies: molecular (DNA) | all life shares same genetic code, amino acids, silent mutations are the same in similar organisms |
| chimps have n=24 chromosomes and we have 23 because two of our ancestors were | fused together |
| theory of common descent | all organisms are going to be similar to ones that diverged more recently |
| biogeography | geographical distribution of living things more similarities in organisms in environments that are close by, than ones that have similar environments but far away |
| r | growth rate (average number of new individuals in the population per individual) |
| r= | birth rate - death rate b-d |
| r is determined by (BIDE factors) | birth rate immigration death rate emigration |
| can also calculate r by | (final pop - initial pop)/ initial pop) |
| deltaN/delta t = rN | change in population for exponential growth tells us how much to ADD |
| Nt = N0(1+r)^t | exponential growth DISCRETE time periods (breeding occurs seasonally, at the same time) |
| Nt= N0e^rt | CONTINUOUS exponential growth |
| deltaN/delta t = (rN(K-N))/K | change in population for LOGISTIC growth tells you how many individuals to ADD K=carrying capacity |
| Lotka Volterra Equations | prey and predator |
| delta N/delta t - rmaxN-aNP | prey |
| deltaP/delta t =bNP-rdP | predator |
| delta N/delta t N deltaP/delta t P | change in prey population size (N) change in predator population size (P) |
| rmax | prey growth rate |
| N vs P | prey population size (N) predator population size (P) |
| a | predation rate |
| b | growth rate of predator |
| rd | death rate of predator |
| gene flow - happens when organisms _____ and interbreed with a _____ population vs genetic drift - small group of population _____ off and forms their _____ population | gene flow - happens when organisms migrate and interbreed with a new population vs genetic drift - small group of population breaks off and forms their own population |
| gene flow = | populations mixing |
| genetic drift = | populations splitting |
| zygote gametes | zygote: diploid, fertilized egg and sperm cell, full set of chromosomes gamete: sex cell, sperm or egg, haploid |
| hybrid inviability vs hybrid sterility | inviability: zygota fails to develop viability: zygote has developed but it fails to produce functional gametes which is why mules are STERLIE but they are still possible to be born, they just can't reproduce |
| carrying capacity | populations cannot increase infinitely, max out at some point |
| population graph often looks like the letter __. this is because initial growth is _____ and then slows down at the inflection point until it reaches capacity | population graph often looks like the letter S. this is because initial growth is rapid and then slows down at the inflection point until it reaches capacity |
| density-independent factors that limit population size | DO NOT depend on population size ABIOTIC - natural disaster, weather, climate, humans, seasonal changes |
| density-dependent factors that limit population size | DO CHANGE as a function of population size BIOTIC - predation, competition, disease/parasites |
| 3 major life history processes "budget for" "fitness trade offs" | growth maintenance reproduction |
| growth | increasing in size, grow enough to survive |
| maintenance (survival) | eat, sleep, move, function |
| reproduction | producing offspring to pass on genes |
| stochastic | randomness in an environment (winter comes early) |
| stochastic environments selects for | selects for EARLIER reproduction |
| terminal investment hypothesis | as an organisms prospects for survival decrease, it will invest more in reproduction |
| fecundity | ability to produce an abundance of offspring |
| high fecundity = low survivorship | small offspring many offspring short life span low-predator and low-disease resistance |
| high fecundity = low survivorship | "r selection" examples: sea turtles, insects, weeds |
| low fecundity = high survivorship | large offspring few offspring long life span high-predator and high-disease resistance |
| low fecundity = high survivorship | "k selection" examples: elephants, humans, whales |
| diversity | variety of species, genes, or ecosystems in an area |
| in general, the smaller the population, _____/______ factors end up having larger effects | random/stochastic ex: genetic drift, inbreeding, unfavorable mutations more present |
| Neutral on Evolution The Church does not have an official doctrine that ______ or _____ evolution. | affirms or denies |
| The Church acknowledges that scientific study is valid and that “organic evolution … is a matter for scientific study. | many see that science and scripture can coexist |
| Adam and Eve are real and came through divine processes but | nothing has been revealed about how life developed before this life |
| the Church lets us | study and interpret science evidence for themselves |
| morphological advantages | can use it on anyone: plants, animals, fossils, bacteria don't need DNA or behavior- just appearance (easy!) |
| morphological disadvantages | arbitrary - hard to define species by just looks, scientists may disagree members of the same species may look different or vice versa (ex:great dane vs cocker spaniel - dogs - same species) (ex: all mosquitos look the same, genetically different) |
| phylogenetic advantages | works for ANY organism (asexual, sexual) testable, measure traits, observe DNA, no guessing good at finding evolutionary relationships/classifications |
| phylogenetic disadvantages | hard to do in practice (data, time, money, computers) trees can shift with new data or species |
| ecological advantages | easy to understand - observe what an organism does |
| ecological disadvantages | organisms can change niche in different life stages (tadpole or frog) different species can share same niche (food, habitat, shelter) |
| biological advantages | shows if there's no gene flow, which means they can't reproduce together which means they are seperate species |
| biological disadvantages | we can't test who mates with who asexual organisms |
| biological species concept: a species is a group of organisms that can ____ with each other and have healthy ______ | mate, have offspring |
| morphological phylogenetic ecological biological | morphological - do they look the same? phylogenetic - do they come from the same branch? ecological - do they have the same niche? biological - can they mate together? |
| LDS evolution beliefs overall: we are ______ of God God created man in his ______ Adam was _____ of our race evolution is not a _____ doctrinal issue | We are offspring of God God created man in His image Adam first of our race Evolution (as a biological process) is not a critical doctrinal issue |
| official stance of the LDS church | neutral! |
| genetic divergence | two populations of the same species become genetically different from each other over time, because of low gene flow |
| to maintain HW equilibrium you must keep the same ____ and _____ frequencies | allele and genotype frquencies |
| inbreeding does not change allele frequency, only genotype frequency, because it causes lots of | homozygotes |
| Genetic drift is weaker in _____ populations and stronger in ______ populations | weaker in large populations stronger in small ones |
| When two populations exchange alleles: Their allele frequencies become more similar Unique alleles in one population spread to the other They become _____genetically distinct | more gene flow between two populations = less genetically extinct EXAMPLE: blueberry smoothie + strawberry smoothie = mixed berry smoothie |
Created by:
anyasalmon