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A&P chapter 9/10
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| agglutin/o | clumping |
| blast/o | primitive cell |
| coagul/o & thromb/o | clot |
| cyt/o | cell |
| erythr/o | red |
| granul/o | granules |
| hem/o & hemat/o | blood |
| leuk/o | white |
| phag/o | eat swallow |
| thrombocyt/o | platelets |
| The cardiovascular system is composed of the | heart blood vessels & blood |
| Blood is a connective | tissue of formed elements in a matrix of plasma |
| Formed elements | cells & cell parts |
| Plasma | liquid portion of blood |
| If blood is spun in a centrifuge the formed elements will separate | the plasma |
| RBCs are the heaviest & will settle at the | bottom of the tube |
| At the top of the tube is the | plasma which is the most abundant |
| Plasma is | 91% water 7% protein and 2% ions nutrients waste products gasses and regulatory substances |
| Plasma is a | solution and it’s concentration is important for homeostasis |
| Plasma proteins | makes up 7% of plasma |
| Albumin | transport proteins |
| Globulins | antibodies and transport proteins |
| Fibrinogen and clotting fibers | protein portion of a clot and serum |
| Serum | plasma with fibrinogen and clotting factors removed |
| Last 2% of plasma contains | ions nutrients waste products gasses and regulatory substances |
| Ions | sodium potassium chloride and calcium |
| Nutrients | glucose and amino acids |
| Waste produces | bilirubin |
| Gasses | oxygen and carbon dioxide |
| Regulatory substances | chemicals used for communication such as hormones |
| The formed elements of blood include | erythrocytes leukocytes and thrombocytes |
| Erythrocytes | most numerous of the formed elements |
| Erythrocytes are | RBCs |
| Biconcave disks with no nuclei which means they don’t | contain DNA |
| They contain hemoglobin that has | iron to carry oxygen |
| Also transport | carbon dioxide |
| Normally don’t leave the blood vessels unless a | vessel is broken |
| Leukocytes are | granulocytes |
| Granulocytes | contains small granules that differ in color when stained |
| granulocytes are | neutrophils eosinophils and basophils |
| Agranulocytes | don’t contain visible granules |
| agranulocytes are | monocytes and lymphocytes |
| Neutrophils | most abundant WBC |
| 40-70% of the total | WBCs |
| Nucleus with | 2-5 lobes and lavender-staining granules |
| First WBCs to respond to | tissue damage |
| Perform phagocytosis and release the enzyme | lysosomes |
| Number increases with | acute infections |
| Basophils | 0-2% of total WBCs |
| U-shoes nucleus and blue-staining | granules |
| mast cells | Those that move into tissues |
| Functions in damaged tissues and during | allergic reactions |
| Releases histamine which dilates | blood vessels to increase blood flow |
| Releases heparin which inhibits | clot formation (anticoagulant) |
| Eosinophils | 0-6% of the total WBCs |
| Bilobed nucleus with | red-staining granules |
| Functions | Neutralize histamine released during allergic reactions Destroy parasitic worms |
| Number increases during | allergic reactions and parasitic worm infections |
| Monocytes | 4-8% of the total WBCs |
| Largest WBCs with | u or kidney-shaped nucleus and no granules |
| Function | Phagocytosis of bacteria and cellular debris Once in tissue they’re called macrophages |
| Lymphocytes | 20-50% of the total WBCs |
| Smallest WBCs with a spherical | nucleus and no granules |
| 2 types | T and B lymphocytes |
| T lymphocytes | Attack and destroys pathogens |
| B lymphocytes | Produce antibodies that attack bacteria and bacterial toxins |
| Also called platelets 150k-400k per mm3 of blood | |
| Cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes that develop from | hemocytoblasts |
| Platelets secrete | vasoconstriction, clotting factors, chemicals to attract neutrophils and monocytes to sites of inflammation, growth factors to stimulate mitosis to repair vessel walls |
| Platelets form | platelet plugs and destroy bacteria |
| Hemopoises is there are 3 forms | blood production |
| 3 forms of hemopoises | Erythropoiesis leukopoiesis and thrombopoiesis |
| Thrombopoiesis starts from a | hemocytoblast in the red bone marrow |
| The liver and kidneys start the process by producing | thrombopoietin when there’s a need for more platelets |
| Leukopoiesis starts from a | hemocytoblast in the red bone marrow |
| Lymphocytes and macrophages produce | colony-stimulating factors when there’s a challenge to the immune system |
| There’s a different CSF for each type of leukocyte | produced |
| Erythropoiesis starts from a | hemocytoblast in the red bone marrow |
| The kidneys produce erythropoietin to stimulate | RBC production when oxygen blood level is low this condition is called hypoxemia |
| Hypoxemia can result from | diseases high elevation increased exercise blood loss and carbon dioxide |
| Iron folic acid vitamin B12 copper and vitamin C are needed for | erythropoiesis |
| Hemoglobin | Red complex protein made of 4 chains of amino acids called globins |
| Each chain contains | heme and globin |
| Heme | iron containing pigment |
| Globin | protein |
| Carries oxygen from | lungs to tissues |
| Transport H+ ions and carbon dioxide from | tissue to lungs |
| Oxygen-carrying hemoglobin is called oxyhemoglobin which makes a | dark red color |
| Carries h+ acting as a | buffer |
| Sickle cell | RBCs are crescent-shaped |
| sickle cell trait | Having 1 copy of the gene |
| sickle cell disease | 2 copies of the gene |
| Nutritional requirements for erythrocytes | iron folic acid and vitamin b12 and copper and vitamin C |
| Iron | key ingredient in hemoglobin because it carries oxygen needed for RBCs RDA is 18 mg/day for a female |
| iron food examples | Meat eggs vegetables legumes |
| Folic acid and vitamin B12 | needed for cell division |
| folic acid and vitamin b12 food examples | Orange juice meat and dairy products |
| Copper and vitamin C | needed for enzymes necessary to form hemoglobin |
| copper and vitamin c food examples | Meats fruits and green vegetables |
| Red blood cells are produced in the | red bone marrow. |
| Red blood cells carry oxygen and carbon dioxide through the bloodstream for | 110 to 120 days before wearing out. |
| The liver and spleen remove | old, worn-out blood cells. |
| Hemoglobin is broken down to | heme and globin. |
| Heme is further broken down to iron, which is recycled, and bilirubin, a waste product. The liver puts bilirubin in bile | which eventually leaves the body in feces. The spleen secretes bilirubin into the blood, where it is removed by the kidneys and excreted with urine. |
| Globin is broken down by the | liver and spleen to free amino acids, which are recycled. |
| Hemostasis is the | stopping of bleeding. |
| Three stages in order | vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation. |
| Vascular spasm constricts the | broken vessel to slow blood flow. |
| Platelet plug formation occurs when platelets stick to | exposed collagen fibers of broken vessel walls. |
| Coagulation (blood clotting) is the | last stage to occur, but it is the most effective. |
| Coagulation involves 2 pathways that result in a | reaction cascade of 1 clotting factor activating the next until a clot is formed |
| Extrinsic | begun by damaged tissue |
| Intrinsic | started by platelets |
| Both require | calcium and clotting factors |
| Both lead to a | common pathway |
| When a vessel is repaired an | inactive enzyme called plasminogen converts to plasmin |
| fibrinolysis | Plasmin dissolves the new unnecessary blood clot |
| Inappropriate clotting (clotting that occurs when vessels are not broken) can disrupt the | flow of blood. |
| Thrombus | stationary unwanted clot |
| Embolus | moving unnecessary clot |
| Inappropriate clotting is prevented by: | platelet repulsion and dilution of thrombin and aticoagulants |
| Platelet repulsion | Smooth blood vessel linings and chemicals prevent platelets from sticking to walls |
| Dilution of thrombin | Thrombin constantly moves |
| Anticoagulants | interfere with the pathways of clotting |
| Antithrombin | produced by the liver |
| Heparin | released by basophils |
| Blood typing is based on the presence of | ABO and Rh antigens on the surface of cells |
| agglutination | Antibodies are dissolved in proteins in plasma that react to foreign antigens |
| Antibodies for the ABO group are acquired as a | child |
| Antibodies for Rh antigens are acquired only | through an exposure to the antigen |
| Determining a blood type and transfusion compatibility | Blood types can be determined by mixing the serum of blood with different types of serum to see if agglutination occurs |
| In a transfusion the donor’s cells must survive the | recipient’s antibodies |
| Transfusion reaction | Occurs if mismatched blood agglutinations |
| Agglutination | Results when 2 non-compatible blood types are mixed together |
| Rh- mothers need to be concerned about blood incompatibility with | Rh+ babies. |
| She does not have | Rh antigen on her RBC |
| She does not have anti-Rh | antibodies |
| She will develop anti-Rh antibodies if she carries an | Rh+ child which can cause hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) |
| Functions of blood | transport protection and regulation |
| Transportation | Blood transports nutrients, waste products, gases, regulatory chemicals, and heat. (RBCs) |
| Protection | Blood protects the body from its own loss through hemostasis. Leukocytes in the blood protect the body from foreign pathogens. |
| Regulation | Blood regulates the fluid and electrolyte balance as well as the body’s acid-base balance. (RBCs) |
| Hematocrit test measures the | percentage of erythrocytes to whole blood |
| Hemoglobin measurement determines the | amount of hemoglobin in a given amount of blood |
| Blood counts can be measured for | RBCs WBCs and platelets |
| WBC count | Measures the number of leukocytes |
| Leukocytosis is a | high white blood cell count. |
| Leukemia also involves a | high white blood cell count, but the white blood cells in leukemia are immature and incapable of fighting off pathogens. |
| Leukopenia is a | low white blood cell count. |
| WBC differential | gives a percentage of each leukocyte |
| Neutrophils | 40-70% |
| Basophils | 0-2% |
| Eosinophils | 0-6% |
| Lymphocytes | 20-50% |
| Monocytes | 4-8% |
| Normal count of platelets | 150,000 – 450,000/uL of blood. |
| Prothrombin time | evaluates the ability of the blood to clot properly |
| Partial thromboplastin time | evaluates the function of clotting factors in the blood |
| Lumbar puncture | involves collecting and looking at cerebrospinal fluid for the presence of WBCs |
| Leukemia | High white blood cell count cells are immature and can’t fight infection |
| 4 types | acute and chronic myeloid and acute and chronic lymphoblastic |
| Acute lymphoblast leukemia | usually occurs in children |
| Chronic lymphoblastic leukemia | usually occurs in people over 70 |
| Polycythemia | Too many RBCs in the blood |
| Primary polycythemia | cancer in the blood |
| Secondary polycythemia | dehydration or hypoxia |
| Anemias | Group of disorders that provide insufficient RBCs or hemoglobin to carry enough oxygen to maintain homeostasis |
| 3 categories | Inadequate erythropoiesis (aplastic or hypoplastic) Hemorrhagic Hemolytic |
| Inadequate erythropoiesis (aplastic or hypoplastic) | Iron deficiency pernicious or aplastic |
| Hemophilia | missing clotting factors |
| Thrombocytopenia | not enough platelets |
| Disseminated intravascular coagulation | excess clots forming throughout the body |
| Acute myeloid leukemia | usually occurs in adult males and causes abnormal granulocytes to quickly proliferate in the bone marrow |
| Chronic myeloid leukemia | occurs in middle-aged adults and in kids and causes the rapid growth of immature granulocytes in the bone marrow |
| Acute lymphoblastic leukemia | most common type of leukemia in kids and causes an abnormal increase of lymphocytes |
| Chronic lymphoblastic leukemia | usually occurs in people 70+ and causes cancerous B lymphocytes to spread from the bone marrow to other parts of the body |
| Disseminated intravascular coagulation | widespread coagulation of blood in unbroken vessels |
| Embolus | moving blood clot |
| Hemophilia | inherited disorder that results in a deficiency of a deficiency of 1 or more clotting factors |
| Thrombocytopenia | low platelet count (less than 100k/ml of blood) |
| Thrombus | stationary blood clot |
| Hemolytic | RBC destruction resulting from inherited factors such as sickle cell disease and thalassemia |
| Hemolytic disease of the newborn | RBC destruction resulting from a blood incompatibility between mother and fetus |
| Hemorrhagic | excessive bleeding caused by trauma failure to clot or ulcers |
| Hypoplastic or aplastic | inadequate erythropoiesis or hemoglobin production caused by kidney failure resulting in reduced EPO and red bone marrow destruction by some poison drugs viruses and radiation |
| Iron deficiency | inadequate erythropoiesis or hemoglobin production caused by inadequate iron in the diet |
| Pernicious | inadequate erythropoiesis or hemoglobin production caused by lack of intrinsic factor from the stomach which allows vitamin B12 to be absorbed |
| Carbon monoxide poisoning | blood poisoning caused by inhalation exposure to excessive levels of carbon monoxide gas |
| Leukocytosis | high WBC count |
| Leukopenia | low WBC count |
| Sickle cell disease | genetic disorder that causes RBCs to become sickle in shape resulting in those cells clumping together and blocking blood flow |
| arter/o and arteri/o | artery |
| ather/o | fatty substance |
| atri/o | atrium |
| brady/ | slow |
| cardi/o and coron/o | heart |
| pericardi/o | pericardium |
| rhythm/o | rhythm |
| sphygm/o | pulse |
| steth/o | chest |
| Tachy | rapid |
| vas/o and vascul/o | vessel |
| ven/o and ven/i | vein |
| ventricul/o | ventricle |
| Heart serves as a pump to circulate | blood through a system of vessels |
| Heart is located in the | mediastinum and is tilted with ⅔ resting left of the misfits plane |
| Heart is the size of an | adult fist and weighs approximately 300 g or 10 oz |
| Pericardium | fluid filled double-walled membrane that surrounds the heart |
| Pericardial sac | contains a tough fibrous layer anchors the heart to the aorta and vena cava thorax sternum throat and diaphragm |
| Epicardium (visceral pericardium) | Outermost layer Contains blood vessels that nourish the heart |
| Myocardium | Layer of cardiac muscle Provides force for contraction |
| Endocardium | Inner layer of simple squamous epithelium Also lines 4 heart chambers |
| 2 atria | upper chamber of the heart that receives blood from veins |
| 2 ventricles | lower chamber of the heart that pumps blood to the arteries |
| Interatrial septum | separates the right and left atria |
| Interventricular septum | separates the right and left ventricles |
| Auricles | small hollow earlike flaps of the atria |
| Sulci | small hollow earlike flaps of the atria |
| Coronary sulces | marks the separation of the atria and ventricles |
| Blood flows in 1 direction through the heart due to | valves |
| Atrioventricular valve | allows flow from the atria to ventricles prevents back flow |
| Tricuspid valve | between right atrium and ventricle |
| Bicuspid valve (or mitral valve) | between left atrium and ventricle |
| Chordae tendinane | attaches the valve cusps to papillary muscles in ventricle walls |
| Semilunar valves | located at the base of blood vessels attached to ventricles |
| Pulmonary valves | between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk |
| Aortic valve | between left ventricle and aorta |
| Striated and branching has | 1 nucleus per cell and has intercalated disks |
| These disks enable the fast transmission of electrical impulses from 1 cell to another also allow | contractions of both atria or ventricles to contract simultaneously |
| Cardiac muscle tissue is specifically adapted to stay | aerobic |
| Cardiac muscle cells have | Many large mitochondria to perform aerobic respiration Rich in myoglobin Rich in glycogen Use a variety of fuels as energy sources (glucose fatty acids amino acids and ketones) |
| Deoxygenated blood flows from the vena cava | To the right atrium through the bicuspid valve |
| To the right atrium through the bicuspid valve | To the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve |
| To the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve | To the pulmonary trunk splits to become pulmonary arteries and to the lungs |
| Blood then returns from the lungs through the pulmonary veins | To the left atrium through the bicuspid valve |
| To the left atrium through the bicuspid valve | To the left ventricle through the aortic valve |
| To the left ventricle through the aortic valve | To the rest of the body |
| Pulmonary circuit | Right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and back to the heart in lungs blood loses CO2 and picks up O2 |
| Systemic circuit | Left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart O2 is unloaded and CO2 is loaded |
| Blood flow through the heart is different for a | developing fetus. |
| A fetal heart has an opening call the foramen ovale located in the interatrial septum | . This opening allows blood in the fetus to bypass the right ventricle and lungs. |
| The fetus also has a ductus arteriosus that | connects the aorta and the pulmonary artery. |
| A fetus receives O2 from its mother and therefore does not need | the blood to go to its own lungs. |
| Once the baby is born, the foramen ovale | closes and becomes the fossa ovalis. The ductus arteriosus also closes. |
| Cardiac muscle is | autorhythmic |
| A heartbeat is started at the | sinoatrial (SA) node, which is why it is called the pacemaker |
| SA node sends electrical impulses to the | atria causing them to contract. |
| Electrical impulses then carried to | right atria and to the atrioventricular (AV) node. This causes the ventricles to contract. |
| AV bundle and bundle branches carry electrical impulse toward | the apex of the heart. |
| Purkinje fibers fan out from the AV bundle to the | ventricles which stimulates the myocardium to contract. |
| Cardiac cycle is 1 complete | contraction and relaxation of the heart |
| Systole is and diastole is | contraction relaxation |
| Systole increases | pressure and decreases volume |
| Diastole decreases | pressure and increases volume |
| SA node fires | atria depolarize |
| Atria contract | together |
| Atria volume | decreases |
| Ventricular volume and pressure | increases |
| Atria depolarize | together |
| Atria | relax |
| Atria fill with blood rushing in from the | superior and inferior vena cava and pulmonary veins |
| Impulses pass through | AV node to the purkinje fibers |
| Ventricles | depolarized |
| Ventricles contract | together |
| Papillary muscles contract ensuring the AV valves | stay closed |
| Ventricular pressure increases | semilunar valve pushes open |
| Ventricles | open |
| Ventricular volume | decreases |
| Ventricles | repolarize, relax, pressure decreases, volume increases, fill |
| Listened to with a | stethoscope |
| Lubb | closing of AV valves during ventricular diastole |
| Dupp | closing of semilunar valves during ventricular systole |
| Cardiac Rhythm | normal pace (sinus rhythm) is usually 70 to 80 beats per minute. |
| Vagal tone is braking provided by the | parasympathetic nervous system. ANS controls the pace of the SA node through the vagus nerve. |
| ectopic focus occurs when | any part of the conduction system other than the SA node is setting the pace. |
| nodal rhythm occurs if the | AV node is the ectopic focus. |
| Hypoxemia, caffeine, nicotine, electrolyte imbalance, & some drugs may cause an | ectopic focus. |
| Arrhythmia is an | abnormal heart rhythm |
| Heart block in which 1 part of the heart’s conduction system fails to send its | signals |
| Ventricles may only be | 20-40x per minute |
| EKG shows the | electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle |
| It includes | P Q R S and t waves |
| P | atrial depolarization |
| QRS | ventricular depolarization |
| Cardiac output | Amount of blood ejected by each ventricle of the heart each minute |
| T | ventricular repolarization |
| Cardiac output is | dependent on heart rate and stroke volume Co = hr x sv |
| Cardiac reserve | Difference between resting cardiac output and maximum cardiac output |
| Heart rate | Measured by feeling the pulse at atrial points |
| Normal heart rate | 64-80 bpm |
| Stroke volume is | dependent on preload contractility and afterload |
| Preload | amount of tension of the myocardium of the ventricular walls |
| Frank-starling law of the heart | heart must pump out the amount of blood it receives |
| Contractility | responsiveness of cardiac muscle to contract |
| Afterload | pressure in the pulmonary trunk and aorta during diastole |
| Heart regulation | Be regulated by the autonomic nervous system through the cardiac accelerator and inhibitory centers in the medulla oblongata which get info from proprioceptors baroreceptors and chemoreceptors |
| Chronotropic factor | affects heart rate |
| Chronotropic Factors of the Autonomic Nervous System | Medulla oblongata |
| Cardiac accelerator center | Sympathetic neurons to stimulate the SA and AV nodes to speed up the heart rate |
| Cardiac inhibitory center | Parasympathetic neurons of the vagus nerve to keep the SA node at 70 to 80 beats/min (vagal tone) |
| Chronotropic Factors of the Autonomic Nervous System | proprioceptors baroreceptors |
| Proprioceptors | The information they send alerts the cardiac centers to any change in the body’s activity level. |
| Baroreceptors | Located in the aorta and carotid arteries Alert the cardiac centers to any changes in blood pressure. If blood pressure falls, the cardiac accelerator center stimulates the SA and AV nodes to increase the heart rate in an effort to restore bp to homeost |
| Chronotropic factors of the autonomic nervous system | chemoreceptors |
| Chemoreceptors | Sensors monitor ph co2 and o2 In the blood Located in the aortic arch carotid arteries and medulla oblongata |
| Epinephrine | Positive Chronotropic effect |
| Other positive | Caffeine norepinephrine nicotine thyroid hormone |
| Potassium ions have a negative | Chronotropic effect |
| Arteries carry blood away from the | heart to capillaries |
| Capillaries allow for the | exchange of materials between the blood and tissues |
| Veins deliver blood from the | capillaries back to the heart |
| Tunica externa | outermost layer of the vessel wall Fibrous connective tissue Provide support and elasticity Anchors vessel to surrounding tissue |
| Tunica media | Smooth muscle fibers Cause changes in blood vessel diameter Thicker layer in arteries than veins middle layer |
| Tunica interna | inner layer Endothelium (simple squamous epithelial tissue) lining inside of blood vessel Secretes a chemical to repel platelets so that blood can easily flow through |
| Conducting Arteries | Largest of the arteries |
| Examples are | pulmonary arteries, the aorta, and the common carotid arteries |
| Carries blood away | from the heart |
| Withstand the high pressure generated by | ventricular systole |
| Have the most muscle and elastic fibers in their walls so that they can expand | with each heartbeat and then return to shape |
| Distributing arteries | Medium-size |
| Distribute blood from the | conducting arteries to organs Hepatic artery and renal artery |
| Have some elastic fibers in their walls to hold their shape but they don’t need to expand as much as | conducting arteries with every heartbeat |
| Resistance | Smallest |
| Examples are | small arterioles that deliver blood to the capillaries |
| Arterioles have | little if any elastic fibers |
| Each arteriole can feed a bed of approximately | 100 capillaries |
| Precapillary sphincters in the arterioles open or close to | regulate blood flow in the capillaries |
| Capillaries | Site of exchange of materials between the blood and tissues Most numerous and smallest vessels |
| RBCs pass through 1 | at a time |
| Walls of the endothelium thin enough to allow | exchange of materials between blood and cells |
| Most abundant in | active tissue |
| Least abundant in | connective tissue |
| Veins | Return blood back to the heart |
| Blood flow from | capillaries into venules |
| Venules unite to form medium veins | which in turn unite to form large veins |
| Valves exist in large veins to | prevent blood backflow and aid in venous blood return |
| Coronary route supplies | blood to the heart |
| Typical systemic route includes | 1 capillary bed |
| Heart then aorta then arteries then arterioles then | capillaries then venules then veins then vena cava then heart |
| Alternative routes | Vary in the number of capillary beds or involve the merging of vessels 2 types (portal and anastomoses) |
| Portal route contains | more than 1 capillary bed |
| Heart then arteries then capillaries then | intervening vessels then capillaries then veins then heart |
| Arteriovenous | Shunt Capillary bed is skipped |
| Atrial | 2 arteries provide collateral routes to the same area Around joints Heart and brain |
| Venous | Merging veins to drain an organ Most common Venous return |
| Blood is returned to the heart through veins by 5 mechanisms | pressure gradient, gravity, thoracic pump, cardiac suction, and skeletal muscle |
| Pressure gradient | less pressure in veins than arteries but blood is propelled toward the heart |
| Gravity | blood moves toward the veins above the heart due to gravity and flows downhill |
| thoracic pump | when inhaling blood in the veins of the abdominal cavity is sucked into the inferior vena cava |
| cardiac suction | blood is socked into the atria from the veins during atrial |
| skeletal muscle | Skeletal muscle action massages blood through the veins while the valves in the veins prevent back flow effective in limbs |
| Blood flow | amount of blood flowing to an area in a given amount of time |
| Blood pressure | force of blood against the vessel walls dependent on cardiac output blood vessel and resistance |
| 3 factors in resistance | blood viscocity vessel length and radius |
| Blood viscosity –(thickness) | Thicker blood offers more resistance to flow and requires more pressure to get it to move. |
| Vessel length | The greater the vessel length, the more friction occurs between the blood and the vessel walls. |
| Vessel radius | Vessel radius becomes a factor because the smaller the radius, the more blood comes in contact with the walls of the vessel. |
| Blood pressure is measured as | systolic pressure/diastolic pressure with the sphygmomanometer |
| Usually measured in the | brachial artery |
| Normal BP for 20-30 year old is | 120/72 |
| Pulse pressure is | surge of pressure that small arteries must withstand with each ventricular contraction; as stroke volume increases pulse pressure also increases |
| •pulse pressure = | systolic pressure – diastolic pressure. |
| MAP = | diastolic pressure x 1/3 pulse pressure |
| Blood pressure and flow can be | regulated |
| Locally | Opening of precapillary sphincters Controlled by waste product and nutrient levels |
| Inflammation | Basophils release vasodilation |
| Reactive hyperemia | Overdilation following lack of blood |
| Angiogenesis | Growth of new vessels |
| ADH | Increases blood volume and pressure |
| Aldosterone | Increases sodium ions and causes water retention increases the effects of ADH |
| Angiotensin 2 | Potent vasoconstrictor which increases resistance and bp |
| Epinephrine | Vasconstriction increases bp |
| Bauroflex | High bp stretches carotid arteries triggering a reflex that decreases bp |
| Chemoreflexor | High CO2 or acid levels trigger vasoconstriction and increases bp |
| Medially ischemic reflex | Direct monitor of cerebral bp Increases bp and blood flow reduces to the brain |
| Exercise increases cardiac output by raising the | heart rate and stroke volume |
| Heart muscle becomes | stronger |
| Stroke volume is higher | at risk |
| Heart rate is slower | at rest |
| If bp remains normal throughout life age-related changes may be | minimal |
| If an individual is hypertensive age-related changes may include an | increase in vascular resistance decreased stroke volume less elastic vessels that are prone to atherosclerosis |
| Lifestyle choices like exercising dieting and not smoking can make a | difference |
| Congestive heart failure | Occurs when 1 ventricle isn’t as efficient as the other bp builds in the circuit before the ventricle resulting in edema in the preceding tissues |
| PDA | incomplete closure of the ductus arteriosus after birth |
| ASD | hole in the septum dividing the right and left atrium |
| VSD | hole in the septum dividing the right and left ventricle |
| Tertalogy of fallot | pulmonary valve stenosis VSD overriding aorta and right ventricular hypertrophy |
| Echocardiography | sound waves to create a picture of the heart |
| ECG | heart’s electrical activity and shows certain problems such as abnormal heartbeats or damaged to the heart |
| Heart CT scan | computed tomography of the heart |
| Nuclear heart scan | procedure that uses radioactive dye to view the heart |
| Holter monitor | machine worn by the patient that continuously monitors the heart’s rhythm during everyday activity |
| Stress test | test that monitors the heart’s electrical activity bp and heart rate while the patient is exercising |
| Cardiac catheterization | procedure in which contrast dye is injected through a catheter into the heart the movement of the dye through the valves chambers and arteries is monitored by x-ray |
| CT angiography | noninvasive way to perform coronary angiography using computed tomography |
| Ultrasound | imaging technique using sound waves to visualize internal structures |
| Venography | test used to view vessels in the body contrast dye is injected into the vein the movement of the dye through the vein is monitored by x-ray |
| Murmur | abnormal heart sound |
| Prolapse | valve in which the leaflet billows or bends in a way that prevents it from closing properly |
| Stenosis | narrowing of the valve causing incomplete closure |
| Arrhythmia | abnormal heart rhythm |
| Atrial fibrillation | condition in which faulty electrical signals cause the atria to beat rapidly and in an irregular pattern |
| Bradycardia | persistent resting adult heart rate that’s less than 60 beats/min |
| Tachycardia | persistent heart rate that’s greater than 100 beats/min |
| Hypertension | resting pressures are greater than 140/90 mmhg |
| Hypotension | chronic low pressure below 90/60 |
| Prehypertension | resting systolic pressure is 120-139 mmhg and/or diastolic pressure is 80-89 |
| Shock | life-threatening condition characterized by the body’s organs systems especially the brain not getting enough blood flow to sustain normal function |
| Aneurysm | weakness in atrial vessel walls that can balloon out and possibly rupture |
| Arteriosclerosis | calcification of the atheroma or fatty deposit within the blood vessel |
| Atherosclerosis | condition that results in the buildup of fatty deposits within atrial walls which causes the walls to roughen and protect the lumen within the vessel |
| CAD | obstruction of the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart usually caused by the above 2 conditions |
| Thrombophlebitis | inflammation of a vein caused by thrombosis |
| Varicose veins | veins in which dysfunctional valves cause the backflow and pooling of blood resulting in enlarged veins |
| Angina pectoris | heaviness or pain in the chest caused by a temporary or reversible myocardial ischemia |
| Congestive heart failure | 1 of the ventricles isn’t working as efficiently as the other |
| Myocardial infarction | death of myocardial tissue due to ischemia |
| Endocarditis | inflammation of the endocardium |
| Myocarditis | inflammation of the myocardium |
| Pericarditis | inflammation of the pericardium |
| Atrial septal | hole in the septum that separates the right and left atrium |
| Congenital heart disorder | valve defects including stenosis or narrow valves atresia in which a valve lacks a hole for blood to travel through and regurgitation in which the valve doesn’t close tightly enough and allows blood to flow back through the valve |
| Patent ductus arteriosus | failure of the ductus arteriosus to close after birth |
| Teratology of fallot | combination of pulmonary valve stenosis VSD overriding aorta and right ventricular hypertrophy |
| Ventricular septal defect | hole in the septum that separates the right and left ventricle |
| Cardiac tamponade | buildup of excessive fluid within the pericardium |
| Rheumatic heart disease | caused by rheumatic fever which results in cardiac and valve stenosis |
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