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Psychology Unit 4
Unit 4
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| memory | the retention of information of experience over time |
| encoding | the process by which information gets into memory storage |
| divided attention | involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time |
| sustained attention | the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time |
| levels of processing | continuum form shallow to intermediate to deep |
| elaboration | the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding |
| storage | encompasses how information is retained over time and how it is represented in memory |
| Atkinson-Shiffrin theory | memory storage involves three systems: sensory (fraction of a second to several seconds), short-term (time frames up to 30 seconds), long-term (time frames up to a lifetime) |
| sensory memory | holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant |
| echoic memory | auditory sensory memory, retained for up to several seconds |
| iconic memory | visual sensory memory, retained for about one-fourth of a second |
| short-term memory | limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds |
| memory span | the number of digits a person can report back after a single presentation of them |
| chunking | grouping or packing information that exceeds the 7+_ 2 memory span into higher-order units that can be remember as single units |
| rehearsal | conscious repetition of information |
| working memory | a combination of components that include short-term memory and attention that allows us to hold information temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks |
| phonological loop | specialized to briefly store speech-based information about the sounds of language |
| visuo-spatial sketchpad | stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery |
| central executive | integrates information not only from the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad but also from long-term memory |
| long-term memory | relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time |
| explicit memory | conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts and events, information that can be verbally communicated |
| perastore memory | portion of original learning that appears destined to stay with the person virtually forever, even without rehearsal |
| episodic memory | retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings |
| semantic memory | type of explicit memory pertaining to a person's knowledge about the world |
| implicit memory | memory in which behavior is affected by prior experiences without a conscious recollection of that experience |
| procedural memory | implicit memory process that involves memory for skills |
| priming | activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information faster and better |
| schema | preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information |
| script | schema for an event |
| connectionism or parallel distributed processing (PDP) | theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory |
| retrieval | information that was retained in memory comes out of storage |
| serial position effect | the tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle |
| recall | memory task in which the person has to retrieve previously learned information |
| recognition | memory task in which the individual only has to identify learned items |
| encoding specificity principle | states that information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue |
| context dependency memory | remembering better when you try to recall information in the same context you learned it |
| false memories | when people remember something that never actually happened |
| autobiographical memory | special form of episodic memory, is a person's recollections of one's own life experiences |
| flashbulb memory | memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events |
| repression | defense mechanism in which a person is so traumatized by an event that the person forgets it and then forgets the act of forgetting it |
| motivated forgetting | occurs when individuals forget something because it is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering is intolerable |
| cognition | the way information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing |
| thinking | manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner |
| concepts | mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics |
| problem solving | finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available |
| subgoals | intermediate goals or intermediate problems we devise to put us in a better position for reaching a final goal or solution |
| algorithms | strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem |
| heuristics | shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer |
| fixation | using prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a new perspective |
| functional fixedness | when people fail to solve a problem because they are fixated on a thing's usual functions |
| reasoning | mental activity of transforming information to reach a conclusion |
| inductive reasoning | reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations |
| deductive reasoning | reasoning from a general principle that we know to be true to a specific instance |
| decision making | evaluating alternatives and choosing among them |
| loss aversion | the tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains |
| confirmation bias | the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them |
| hindsight bias | the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome |
| availability heuristic | a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events |
| base rate neglect | the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific information |
| representativeness heuristic | tendency to make judgements about group memberships based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information |
| critical thinking | thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence |
| mindfulness | being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities |
| open-mindedness | being receptive to other ways of looking at things |
| creativity | ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems |
| divergent thinking | produces many solutions to the same problem |
| convergent thinking | produces the single best solution to a problem |
| intelligence | an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experiences |
| eugenics | the belief in the possibility of improving the human species by discouraging reproduction among those with less desirable characteristics and enhancing reproduction among those with more desirable characteristics |
| validity | the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure |
| reliability | the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance |
| standardization | developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test |
| mental age (MA) | an individual's level of mental development relative to that of others |
| intelligence quotient (IQ) | consists of an individuals mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 |
| normal distribution | symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range |
| culture-fair tests | intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased |
| heritability | proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group's members |
| gifted | high IQ and/or superior talent in a particular area |
| intellectual disability | condition of limited ability that affects functioning in three domains: conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills |
| triarchic theory of intelligence | intelligence comes in multiple form: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence |
| verbal | ability to think in words and use language to express meaning |
| mathematical | the ability to carry out mathematical operations |
| spatial | ability to think three-dimensionally |
| bodily-kinesthetic | ability to manipulate objects and to be physically adept |
| musical | ability to be sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone |
| interpersonal | ability to understand and interact effectively with others |
| intrapersonal | ability to understand oneself |
| naturalist | ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems |
| existentialist | ability to grapple with the big questions of human existence, such as the meaning of life and death, with special spirituality |
| language | form of communication based on a system of symbols |
| phonology | language's sound system |
| morphology | language's rules for word formation |
| syntax | language's rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences |
| semantics | meaning of words and sentences in a particular language |
| pragmatics | useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said |
| cognitive appraisal | a person's interpretation of a situation |
| coping | essentially a kind of problem solving |
| cognitive reappraisal | regulating our feelings about an experience by reinterpreting it or thinking about it in a different way or from a different angle |
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