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Psych Last Week
Language, Thought, Concepts/Categories, and Decision Making
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Language | System for communicating with others using signals that convey meaning, and are combined according to rules of grammar |
| Grammar | Set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages |
| How is human language different from animal communication? | Modality-independent: Can be auditory or visual or tactile, Grammars allow for a potentially infinite number of sentences People use language to help think and remember, not only to communicate with others |
| Morpheme | the smallest meaningful unit in a language |
| Content Morphemes | nouns, verbs, adjective, adverbs ,convey much of the meaning of a sentence, new items, created constantly |
| Function Morpheme | prepositions, pronouns, articles, -ed for past tense, -s for plural, etc (a fixed, small set of items with light meaning |
| Phoneme | Smallest unit of sound that is recognizable as speech |
| Grammar= | Morphology+ Syntax |
| Morphology | Rules for combining morphemes into words |
| Syntax | Rules for combining words into phrases and sentences (Word order, agreement between nouns and verbs, nouns and adjectives, each language has its own |
| Deep Structure | Meaning of a sentence |
| Surface Structure | How a sentence is worded |
| People remember ___ and usually forget exact wording within seconds | Gist |
| Children learn language at an | Astonishing rate |
| Children make few errors while | Learning to speak |
| Children's ability to comprehend a language structure precede | Their ability to produce it. |
| Different languages have different sets of phonemes chosen from a universal pool | Infants can distinguish between all, but lose it after 6 months |
| Babbling starts at | 4-6 months |
| Infants raised by sign language users babble with | Hand Gestures in addition to speech sounds |
| First words produced at | 10-12 months, nouns before verbs mostly |
| Fast mapping | Children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure |
| 2 word speech occurs at around | 24 months of age |
| Telegraphic speech | Speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words |
| As children learn grammar, they tend to | Overgeneralize rules |
| By three years of age | Children generate full sentences |
| By 4-5 years of age | many aspects of the language acquisition process are complete. Vocabulary at least 10,000 words |
| Noah Chomsky argued against | B.F Skinner and operant conditioning for language |
| Noah Chomsky argued that | Parents spend little time teaching language Children generate more than what they hear Errors of over-generalizing a rule cannot be explained through conditioning or imitation |
| Theories of Language Development | Operant learning explanation discarded, Skinner lost the debate. Nativist explanations argue that humans are born ready to start acquiring a language, no “reinforcement” is necessary. |
| Theories of Language Development cont | social experience interacts with innate, biological language abilities Child directed speech is simplified, Two-year olds from poor families behind children from richer families in language skills, comes from hearing less language |
| Can children learn language better? | Vocab No, Phonology Probably Yes, Syntax, Children have clear advantage |
| People begin to learn the syntax of a second language more slowly at what age? | 18 years old. |
| Language relies on the | Left Hemisphere |
| If left hemisphere completely removed | these patients still learn their first language, but not as well as patients who had their right hemisphere removed. |
| Appreciation of verbal humor | Right hemisphere |
| Broca's area | Speech production and Syntax |
| Wernicke's area | Meaning |
| Language provides a compact code for | encoding and retrieving specific memories. Often what we remember is the verbal description, not the details of an event |
| Linguistic relativity hypothesis | Proposal that language shapes the nature of thought; originated by Benjamin Whorf |
| Verbs can focus on ___ or _____ | Manner; path |
| English verbs focus on manner | skip, run, jog, hop, amble, stroll, etc. Need extra words to say where the motion goes: in, out, along, toward, etc. |
| Spanish Verbs tend to focus on path | entrar, salir, subir, bajar (for “go in”, “go out”, “go up”, “go down”) Need extra words to specify how the motion occurred. |
| Concept | Mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli |
| Category | Groups of concepts that belong together |
| What makes a category? | Rule and Family Resemblance |
| Rule | Necessary and sufficient conditions to belong. Works for SOME categories. |
| Family Resemblance | Members of a category have features that are frequently found, but not every member has all the features |
| Brain imaging studies of people viewing pictures or words for objects in different categories | Animals, tools, houses, faces, etc show clusters of cortical activity in different locations for different categories. |
| Prototype Theory | People make category judgments by comparing new instances to the category’s prototype |
| Prototype | the “best” or “most typical” member of a category |
| Exemplar theory | People make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category |
| Prototypes used in __________ Rules and Exemplars used by ____________ | Sensory Cortex; Prefrontal cortex |
| Brain imaging studies of people viewing pictures or words for objects in different categories | Animals, tools, houses, faces, etc show clusters of cortical activity in different locations for different categories. |
| Reasoning | Organizing information and/or beliefs to reach conclusions or solve a problem |
| Animals contain lots of _________ knowledge | Visual |
| Inanimate objects contain lots of _________ knowledge | Functional and motor |
| Decision making | Choosing between options |
| Reasoning | Organizing information and/or beliefs to reach conclusions or solve a problem |
| 1800s thoughts about decision making | Economists describe (and assume) rational decision making |
| 1970s onward | Cognitive psychologists characterize the biases and shortcuts that make people deviate from rational decision makers |
| 2000s onward | Decision-making research incorporates the influence of emotion |
| Human deviations from rational decision making | Not good at working with probabilities/percentages, frequencies (numbers) seem to work better |
| Availability bias | If an item is more familiar, we think it occurs more often,This is an example of a heuristic – a cognitive shortcut. |
| Conjunction fallacy | The conjunction of two events CANNOT be likely than either single event, but people tend to think so anyway |
| Representativeness heuristic | Categorizing an item by it’s similarity to the prototype for that category, but ignoring base rate |
| Sunk Cost Fallacy | Decisions about the future should be based on the likelihood of future success, not about the past |
| Framing effects | The same problem gets different responses depending on how the options are described "80% lean beef” vs “beef with 20% fat” |
| Expected Value = | Value x Probability, summed across possible outcomes |
| Loss Aversion | People choose to avoid risks when evaluating potential gains, but take risks when evaluating potential losses |
| Reference Dependent | thinking about gains and losses If you start with $0, a gain or loss of $100 is correctly thought of as +100 versus -100 BUT... When people start with $1000, they think of a gain or loss of $100 as $1100 vs $900 |
| Integral emotions | Emotion aroused by one of the options Beneficial influence: Fear of a risky option Non-beneficial influence: Insufficient weighting of the base rate |
| Incidental Emotions | Carryover mood from one situation to another ex:Winning the soccer World Cup stock = market up in the country that won Sunny weather =good mood, more convinced that a decision will turn out well |
| Poor decision making associated with | damage to ventral-medial part of prefrontal cortex |
| The illusion of explanatory depth | People often think they understand something better than they do. |
| Well Defined problems | clearly specified goals and solution paths |
| ilI-defined problems | (goal and/or solution not well-defined) |
| Means ends analysis | Dealing with an ill-defined problem |
| Analogical problem solving | Find a similar problem with a known solution and apply that solution to the current problem |
| Insights | Involve the spontaneous restructuring of a problem or unconscious incremental processes. |
| Framing effects can limit | insightful problem solving |
| Insights involve | the spontaneous restructuring of a problem or unconscious incremental processes |
| Functional fixedness | Tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed |
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