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Psychology #2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the three basic functions of memory | Encoding, storage, and retrieval |
| What is memory | the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time |
| What is encoding | input of information into the memory system |
| What two processes is memory encoded by | Automatic processing and effortful processing |
| What is autonomic processing | encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. |
| What is effortful processing | Having to go through more work to remember things, like the test material for an exam |
| What are the three types of encoding | Semantic, visual, and acoustic coding |
| What is semantic encoding | encoding of words and their meaning |
| What is visual encoding | Encoding of images |
| What is acoustic encoding | Encoding of sounds, words in particular |
| What is the self reference effect | the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance |
| What is storage | creation of a permanent record of information. |
| What are the three stages of storage | Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory |
| What is sensory memory | storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a couple of seconds. |
| What is short term memory | temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. Lasts up to 15-30 seconds |
| What is rehearsal | moves information from short-term memory to long-term memory |
| What is active rehearsal | repeat (practice) the information to be remembered. If you repeat it enough, it may be moved into long-term memory. |
| What is elaborative rehearsal | the act of linking new information you are trying to learn to existing information that you already know. |
| What is long term memory | continuous storage of information - storage is unlimited |
| What is a semantic network | consists of concepts, and as you may recall from what you’ve learned about memory, concepts are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences |
| What is spreading activation | If one part of a network is activated, it is easier to access the associated concepts because they are already partially activated |
| What are the two types of long term memory | Explicit and Implicit |
| What are explicit memories | those we consciously try to remember, recall, and report. |
| What are the two subdivisions of explicit memories | Episodic and semantic memory |
| What is episodic memory | information about events we have personally experienced |
| What is semantic memory | is knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts |
| What are implicit memories | long-term memories that are not part of our consciousness |
| What is implicit procedural memory | stores information about the way to do something, and it is the memory for skilled actions, such as brushing your teeth, riding a bicycle, or driving a car |
| What is implicit emotional conditioning | the type of memory involved in classically conditioned emotion responses |
| What is retrieval | The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness |
| Three ways to retrieve | Recall, recognition, and relearning |
| What is recall | access information without cues |
| What is recognition | you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again |
| What is relearning | Learning information you have already previously learned |
| What was the "engram" | group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory” |
| Who was the one who started looking if memory was stored in more parts of the brain | Karl Lashley |
| What is the equipotentiality hypothesis | if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function |
| What are the main parts of the brain that are involved in memory | Amygdala, Hippocampus, cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex |
| What is the main job of the amygdala | regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression. Plays a part in how memories are stored, and memory consolidation |
| What is the job of the hippocampus | specifically normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory |
| What does the cerebellum do with memory | create implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning) |
| What does the prefrontal cortex do with memory | Processing and retaining information |
| What are specific neurotransmitters that are associated with memory | epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine |
| What is the arousal theory | strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories |
| What is a flashbulb memory | exceptionally clear recollection of an important event (Example: 9/11) |
| What is amnesia | the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma. |
| What is anterograde amnesia | cannot remember new information, although you can remember information and events that happened prior to your injury. |
| What is retrograde amnesia | is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma. |
| What is construction | The formulation of new memories |
| What is reconstruction | process of bringing up old memories |
| What is suggestibility | describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories. |
| What is the misinformation effect paradigm | after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event. |
| What is false memory syndrome | Recall of false autobiographical memories |
| What is encoding failure | memory loss happening before the actual memory process begins |
| What is transience | Memories fading over time |
| What is absentmindedness | describes lapses in memory caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else. |
| What is blocking | Not being able to access stored information |
| What are the three errors of distortion | misattribution, suggestibility, and bias. |
| What are the three developmental domains | Physical, cognitive, and psychosocial |
| What is physical development | growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. |
| What is cognitive development | involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. |
| What is psychosocial development | involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. |
| What is the normative approach | What does normal development look like |
| What are developmental milestones | compare children with same-age peers to determine the approximate ages they should reach specific normative events |
| What is continuous development | development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills |
| What is discontinuous development? | development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages. |
| What is nature | Biology and genetics |
| What is Nurture | Our environment and culture |
| Who came up with the psychosexual theory | Sigmund Freud |
| What is psychosexual theory | children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. |
| Who modified Freud's theory | Erik Erickson |
| Who came up with psychosocial development | Erik Erikson |
| What is psychosocial development | emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. |
| What is the ego identity | how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, |
| When is the trust and mistrust stage | 0-1 years old |
| What is the trust and mistrust stage | Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met |
| When is the autonomy vs shame and doubt stage | 1-3 years old |
| What is the autonomy vs shame and doubt stage | Develop a sense of independence in many tasks |
| Who came up with the cognitive theory of development? | Jean Piaget |
| What is schemata | concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. |
| Two processes of schemata | Assimilation and accomodation |
| What is assimilation | when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. |
| What is accomodation | when they change their schemata based on new information. |
| What are the stages of cognitive development | Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational |
| What is sensorimotor | children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. |
| What is object permanence | which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists |
| What is the preoperational stage | children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. |
| What is conservation | the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added. |
| What is egocentrism | the child is not able to take the perspective of others. |
| What is the concrete operational stage | children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. |
| What is reversibility | objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. |
| What is the formal operational stage | able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. |
| What is the postformal stage | decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. |
| Who proposed a sociocultural theory of development? | Lev Vygotsky |
| What is the sociocultural theory of development | Human development is rooted in one's culture |
| Who created the stages of moral reasoning | Lawrence Kohlberg |
| What are the three stages of development | Germinal, embryonic, and fetal |
| What is conception | when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote |
| What is a zygote | one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge. |
| What is the process of cell division | Mitosis |
| What is the time stamp for the germinal stage | 1-2 weeks |
| What is an embryo | Multicellular organism that implants itself into the uterine lining |
| What is the placenta | structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. |
| What is the time stamp for the embryonic stage | 3-8 weeks |
| What is the time stamp for the fetal stage | 9-40 weeks |
| What is prenatal care | medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the pregnant person and the fetus |
| What is a teratogen | any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus. |
| What is the critical/sensitive period | Organs of the fetus developing at different stages |
| What are newborn reflexes | inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. |
| What is the rooting reflex | the newborn’s response to anything that touches their cheek: |
| What is the moro reflex | newborn’s response to the sensation of falling. |
| What are motor skills | our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects |
| What are fine motor skills | focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions |
| What are gross motor skills | focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements |
| What is attachment | long-standing connection or bond with others. |
| What is a secure base | parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings. |
| What is secure attachment? | the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger |
| What is avoidant attachment | the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. |
| What is resistant attachment | children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them |
| What is disorganized attachment | They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns |
| What are the four parenting styles | authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. |
| What is the authoritative style | parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view |
| What is authoritarian style | parent places high value on conformity and obedience. |
| What is permissive style | the kids run the show and anything goes. |
| What is the uninvolved style | the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. |
| What is temperament | to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment. |
| What is adolesence | period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood, which is discussed later |
| What changes happen through puberty | Adrenarche and gonadarche |
| What are adrenarche and gonadarche | Maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands |
| What are primary sexual characteristics | organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries and testes. |
| What are secondary sexual characteristics | physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice |
| What is menarche | Beginning of menstrual periods |
| What is spermarche | First ejaculation |
| What is cognitive empathy | to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others |
| What is emerging adulthood | characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love. |
| What are the three stages of adulthood | Early, middle, and late |
| What did Mary Ainsworth study/question asked | Do children differ in the way they bond, and if so, why. Studied through the strange situation experiment |
| What was the strange situation experiment | Mother and infant are place in room together with toys, stranger enters the room and mother leaves, after a few minutes mother returns to the room to comfort |
| What is self concept | Development of positive sense of self is the main psychosocial milestone of childhood. Children display increased social behavior after establishing a self concept |
| What is easy temperament | Positive emotions, adapt well to change, and capable of regulating emotions |
| What is difficult temperament | Negative emotions, difficulty adapting to change and regulating emotions |
| What is socioemotional selectivity theory | that our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not closer than in our earlier years |
| What are the five stages of grief | denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. |
| What is a living will/advanced directive | written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants. |
| What is a health care proxy | appoints a specific person to make medical decisions for you if you are unable to speak for yourself |
| What is social psychology | examines how people affect one another, and it looks at the power of the situation. |
| What is the difference between intra vs interpersonal | Intrapersonal topics (those that pertain to the individual) include emotions and attitudes. Interpersonal topics (those that pertain to dyads and groups) |
| What is behavior the product of | The situation and the person themselves |
| What is situationism | the view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings. |
| What is dispositionism | our behavior is determined by internal factors |
| What is an internal factor | an attribute of a person and includes personality traits and temperament. |
| What is the fundamental attribution error | assume that the behavior of another person is a trait of that person, and to underestimate the power of the situation on the behavior of others. |
| What is the halo effect | to the tendency to let the overall impression of an individual color the way in which we feel about their character. |
| What is individualistic culture | a culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy, have the greatest tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error. |
| What is collectivistic culture | a culture that focuses on communal relationships with others, such as family, friends, and community, are less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error |
| What is the actor observer bias | the phenomenon of attributing other people’s behavior to internal factors (fundamental attribution error) while attributing our own behavior to situational forces |
| What is attribution | A belief about the cause of a result. |
| 3 Main dimensions of attribution | locus of control (internal versus external), stability (stable versus unstable), and controllability (controllable versus uncontrollable). |
| What is self serving bias | the tendency to explain our successes as due to dispositional (internal) characteristics, but to explain our failures as due to situational (external) factors. |
| What is the just world hypothesis? | the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve |
| What is a social role | a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group |
| What is a social norm | a group’s expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its member |
| What is a script | a person’s knowledge about the sequence of events expected in a specific setting |
| What was the Stanford prison experiment | 70 male volunteers were asked to pretend like they were in prison to represent prison life |
| What is attitude | our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. |
| What are the three components of attitude | an affective component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component (belief and knowledge) |
| What is cognitive dissonance | psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). |
| What is justification of effort | we value goals and achievements that we put a lot of effort into. |
| What is persuasion | the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication. |
| What is the central route in persuasion | logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness. |
| What is the peripheral route in persuasion | indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message |
| What is the foot in the door technique | the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item. |
| What is a confederate | person who is aware of the experiment and works for the researcher. |
| What is conformity | the change in a person’s behavior to go along with the group, even if he does not agree with the group. |
| What is the Asch effect | the influence of the group majority on an individual’s judgment. |
| What is normative social influence | people conform to the group norm to fit in, to feel good, and to be accepted by the group. |
| What is informational social influence | people conform because they believe the group is competent and has the correct information, particularly when the task or situation is ambiguous. |
| What is groupthink | the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus |
| What is group polarization? | is the strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group. |
| What are social traps | to situations that arise when individuals or groups of individuals behave in ways that are not in their best interest and that may have negative, long-term consequences. |
| What is social loafing | reduction in individual output on tasks where contributions are pooled. |
| What is deindividuation | situations in which a person may feel a sense of anonymity and therefore a reduction in accountability and sense of self when among others. |
| What is prejudice | negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one’s membership in a particular social group |
| What is a stereotype | a specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics. |
| What is discrimination | negative action toward an individual as a result of one’s membership in a particular group |
| What is racism | prejudice and discrimination against an individual based solely on one’s membership in a specific racial group |
| What is sexism | prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex. |
| What is ageism | prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age. |
| What is a self-fulfilling prophecy | an expectation held by a person that alters their behavior in a way that tends to make it true. |
| What is confirmation bias | we seek out information that supports our stereotypes and ignore information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes |
| What is an ingroup | group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to. |
| What is an outgroup | a group that we view as fundamentally different from us. |
| What is scapegoating | the act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal |
| What are the two types of aggression | Hostile and Instrumental |
| What is hostile aggression | motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain; like a fight in a bar with a stranger |
| What is instrumental aggression | is motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain. Like a contract killer for hire |
| What is the bystander effect | phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. |
| What is diffusion of responsibility | the tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group |
| What is prosocial behavior | Voluntary behavior with the intent to help other people |
| What is altruism | people’s desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping. |
| What is homophily | tendency for people to form social networks, including friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar |
| What is the triangular theory of love | three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. |
| What is the social exchange theory | we act as naïve economists in keeping a tally of the ratio of costs and benefits of forming and maintaining a relationship with others |
| What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model | Persuasion can take one of two paths, and the durability of the end result depends on the path (peripheral and direct routes) |
| How have some characterized the definition of stress | stress as a demanding or threatening event or situation - Which is a stimulus based definition |
| What is wrong with stimulus-based definitions of stress | They fail to recognize that people differ in how they view and react to challenging life events and situations. |
| What is a response-based definition of stress | emphasize the physiological responses that occur when faced with demanding or threatening situations |
| What is the right way to view stress | a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that they appraise as overwhelming or threatening to their well-being |
| What are the two types of appraisals for stressors | Primary and secondary |
| What is a primary appraisal | involves judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail. |
| What is a secondary appraisal | judgment of the options available to cope with a stressor, as well as perceptions of how effective such options will be |
| What is eustress | "Good" stress |
| What is distress | burned out; they are fatigued, exhausted, and their performance begins to decline. |
| What kind of responses can stress evoke | physiological (e.g., accelerated heart rate, headaches, etc), cognitive (e.g., difficulty concentrating or making decisions), and behavioral (e.g., drinking alcohol, smoking, etc.) |
| Who was an early pioneer studying stress | Walter Cannon |
| Who founded the fight or flight response | Walter Cannon |
| Who became an expert in the study of stress | Hans Selye |
| What did Selye discover | General adaptation syndrome |
| What is general adaptation syndrome | the body’s nonspecific physiological response to stress. |
| What are the three stages of GAS | Alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion |
| What is the alarm reaction | the body’s immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency, |
| What is the stage of resistance | the initial shock of alarm reaction has worn off and the body has adapted to the stressor. |
| What is the stage of exhaustion | person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor: the body’s ability to resist becomes depleted as physical wear takes its toll on the body’s tissues and organs. |
| How in three stages does stress tax the body | initial jolt, subsequent readjustment, and a later depletion of all physical resources |
| What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis | Part of the fight or flight response after the sympathetic nervous system has done its job |
| What is cortisol | stress hormone and helps provide that boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor, preparing us to run away or fight. |
| What is a threat under primary appraisal | stressor that could lead to harm/loss/negative consequences |
| What is a challenge under primary appraisal | Stressor that carries the potential for gain/personal growth |
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