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unit 1 psych
vocab
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Nature | refers to the hereditary influences and biological factors, such as genes and genetic predispositions, that shape an individual's development and behavior |
| Nurture | the totality of environmental factors that influence an individual's development and behavior, encompassing upbringing, education, cultural experiences, and relationships |
| Evolutionary Perspective | the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. |
| Natural Selection | the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. |
| Hereditary | the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring. |
| Eugenics | is a discredited pseudoscience that sought to improve the human species by "scientifically" promoting reproduction among people with supposedly desirable traits and preventing it among those with supposedly undesirable ones |
| Environment | every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us. |
| Central Nervous System | the brain and spinal cord. |
| Sympathetic Nervous System | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy. |
| Depolarization | a change in the electrical potential across a cell membrane, making it less negative (or more positive) |
| Refectory Period | a brief time interval after a stimulus has been perceived and responded to, during which the individual is temporarily unable to respond to subsequent stimuli |
| Threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. |
| Peripheral Nervous System | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. |
| All-or-Nothing Principle | a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. |
| Neurons | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. |
| sensory neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. |
| resting period | in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state. |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. |
| Glial Cells | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. |
| Reuptake | a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron. |
| Neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. |
| Glutamate | is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter released by nerve cells in your brain. It plays a major role in learning and memory. For your brain to function properly, needs to be present in the right concentration in the right places at the right tim |
| Norepinephrine | a neurotransmitter and hormone that plays a crucial role in the body's response to stress and arousal. It plays an important role in your body’s “fight-or-flight” response |
| GABA | is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It lessens a nerve cell’s ability to receive, create or send chemical messages to other nerve cells. Many medical conditions are associated with changing levels of this |
| Ghrelin | is a hormone your stomach produces and releases. It signals your brain when your stomach is empty and it’s time to eat. |
| Endorphins | “morphine within” — natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. |
| Substance P | a neuropeptide, a small protein-like molecule that acts as a neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It plays a role in various physiological and psychological processes, including |
| Leptin | a hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissue that plays a crucial role in regulating body weight and energy balance |
| Hormones | chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. |
| Oxytocin | a hormone and neurotransmitter, often called the "love hormone," that facilitates social bonding, emotional connection, trust, and empathy, while also playing roles in stress reduction and mood regulation |
| Dopamine | a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger in the brain, that plays a crucial role in various psychological functions: known as the "feel good" makes you happy |
| Serotonin | a neurotransmitter and hormone that play a crucial role in regulating various physiological and psychological functions |
| Acetylcholine | a crucial neurotransmitter that plays a role in both peripheral and central nervous systems, impacting muscle contraction, attention, aroudal, learning, and memory |
| Adrenaline | a hormone or neurotransmitter produced by the adrenal glands released in response to stress or perceived danger and increases heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness |
| Melatonin | a hormone produced by the pineal gland in the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating the body's sleep-wake cycle, also known as the circadian rhythm |
| Psychoactive Drugs | a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods. |
| Depressant | drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. |
| agonist | a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action. |
| stimulant | drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. |
| alcohol | a depressant which can disrupt the balance of neurotransmitters in your brain and affect your feelings, thoughts, and behavior |
| addiction | an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences. |
| antagonist | a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action. |
| hallucinogen | psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. |
| reuptake inhibitor | a type of medication that increases the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain by blocking their reabsorption |
| caffeine | a central nervous system stimulant that increases alertness, attention, and energy levels |
| opioids | opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. |
| withdrawal | the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior. |
| brain stem | the lower portion of the brain that connects it to the spinal cord. three parts: midbrain, pons, and medulla |
| thalamus | the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. |
| hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage. |
| medulla | the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing. |
| limbic system | neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives. |
| amygdala | two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. |
| Reticular Activating system | a network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a crucial role in regulating wakefulness, arousal, and consciousness |
| corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. |
| cerebellum | the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. |
| hypothalamus | a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward. |
| cerebrum | the largest part of the brain, located in the upper portion of the skull and is responsible for controlling and coordinating many important functions like thought, reasoning, movement and senses |
| pituitary gland | a small, pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain |
| cerebral cortex | the outer layer of the brain, composed of gray matter, that plays a crucial role in higher cognitive functions |
| parietal lobe | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position. |
| Broca's area | a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech. |
| Frontal lobe | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgments). |
| prefrontal cortex | a region of the brain located at the front of the frontal lobes and includes role in various cognitive and emotional functions |
| Wernicke's area | a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression. |
| occipital lobe | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. |
| motor cortex | a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. |
| temporal lobe | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing. |
| brain plasticity | the brain's ability to change and adapt throughout life |
| EEG | an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. |
| fMRI | a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scan, shows brain function as well as structure. |
| lesions | tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells). |
| Phineas Gage Case Study | the story of a railroad foreman whose frontal lobe was severely damaged y a tamping iron in a 1848 accident, leading to a personality change from a well-balanced, energetic man to fitful, irreverent individual |
| Split-brain | a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. |
| consciousness | our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment. |
| circadian rhythm | a natural 24 hour cycle of physical, mental, and behavioral changes that occur in response to light and darkness cues in the environment |
| REM sleep | a vital sleep stage marked by intense brain activity (similar to being awake), rapid eye movements, temporary muscle paralysis (atonia), and vivid dreaming, crucial for memory consolidation, emotional processing, learning, and brain development |
| NREM sleep | non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep. |
| insomnia | recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. |
| narcolepsy | a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The affected person may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. |
| REM sleep behavior disorder | a sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur; instead, twitching, talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one’s dream. |
| sleep apnea | a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. |
| somnambulism | a sleep disorder characterized by engaging in complex behaviors while still asleep, reduced awareness of surroundings, impaired judgment and decision-making, and limited memory of the event afterwards |
| REM rebound | the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. |
| Hypnagogic sensations | bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep. |
| absolute threshold | the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. |
| sensory interaction | the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. |
| sensory receptors | sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli. |
| perception | the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful. |
| Bottom-Up processing | information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. |
| Top-down processing | information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. |
| signal detection theory | a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. |
| subliminal | below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness. |
| priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response. |
| sensory adaptation | diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. |
| wavelength | the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma waves to the long pulses of radio transmission. |
| hue | the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. |
| intensity | the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness., is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height). |
| cornea | the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris. |
| pupil | the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. |
| iris | a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. |
| lens | the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. |
| retina | the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. |
| accommodation | (1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina. (2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information. |
| rods | retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond. |
| cones | retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. they detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. |
| optic nerve | the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. |
| blind spot | the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there. |
| fovea | the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster. |
| young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory | the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors — one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue — which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. |
| opponent-process theory | the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. |
| feature detectors | nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. |
| parallel processing | processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously. |
| audition | the sense or act of hearing |
| frequency | the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time |
| pitch | a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. |
| middle ear | the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window. |
| cochlea | a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses. |
| inner ear | the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. |
| place theory | in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. |
| volley theory | the theory of hearing that explains how the auditory system perceives high-frequency sounds |
| frequency theory | in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. |
| conduction hearing loss | a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. |
| sensorineural hearing loss | the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness. |
| gate-control theory | the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals/allows them to pass on to the brain. its opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming fro |
| gustation | our sense of taste |
| olfaction | our sense of smell |
| kinesthesis | our movement sense — our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. |
| vestibular sense | our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance. |
| sensory interaction | the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. |
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