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Individ diffs 2A
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| instinct | inherited characteristic automatically producing a particular response |
| homeostasis | body's natural process of striving to maintain equilibrium, maintain set point |
| set point | fixed level that maintains homeostasis, optimal level for function |
| drives | internal tension leading to motivation to relieve tension |
| learned helplessness | when believe behaviour has no control over outcome, less driven to take action |
| approach and avoidance motivation | cog theory of motiv, maximise pleasure, avoid pain |
| approach-approach | 2 pleasing scenarios, choosing best |
| avoidance-avoidance | choosing lesser of 2 evils, 2 undesirable alternatives |
| approach-avoidance | one scenario being equally attractive and repelling |
| reward/pleasure, fear/threat | most likely to approach pleasure/reinforcement, avoid pain/threat. avoidance motivation = stronger than approach motivation |
| behavioural activation system | BAS, prefrontal area in left hemisphere, activated by prospect of reward + pos need gratification |
| behavioural inhibition system | BIS, limbic system + right frontal lobe, activated in response to perceived threat/pain |
| cognitive processes | external vs internal motivation |
| external mot | coming from external world/sources (award, praise, prizes, money) |
| intrinsic | coming from within, motivated by task itself (satisfaction, curiosity, entertainment) |
| Maslow's hierarchy of needs | from basic needs (deficiency needs) to self transcendence/actualization (growth needs), only move up scale if bottom needs filled |
| deficiency needs | first four levels: physiological (food, water), safety (shelter, security), belongingness + love (affection, acceptance, affiliation), esteem (recognition, approval) |
| growth needs | top four levels: cognitive (knowledge + understanding), aesthetic (symmetry, beauty), self actualisation (achieve full potential), self transcendence (thinking beyond self) |
| positive psych | optimal subjective well-being best promotes effective functioning, collective function + thought, flourish when in flow state + experiencing gratitude |
| hunger motivation | automatic instinct to seek satiety and provide body w energy |
| metabolism | body's rate of energic depletion/use |
| satiety | feeling of content fulness, no longer hungry |
| physiological signals starting meal | fuel sensors detect glucose low. glucose levels monitored by liver + hypothalamus, liver may turn stored nutrients into more glucose |
| physiological signals ending a meal | stomach + intestinal detention, CKK + other peptides released into blood stream -> brain decrease appetite |
| physiological signals regulating appetite | leptin released into bloodstream, decreases appetite, increases energy expenditure |
| psychological habits, attitudes, belief | - snacking with TV - cleaning plate - social pressures to conform to cultural beauty standards - fatphobia |
| environmental + social factors | food availability, taste + variety, cultural normas affect when, how, what we eat |
| eating disorders | anorexia nervosa, bulemia nervosa, pica, binge eating, |
| anorexia nervosa | restrictive eating to the point of threat to life (reduced bone density, heart stress) |
| bulemia | cycles of binge eating + purging (goes more under radar, stomach acid damage) |
| obesity | excessive eating/fat percentage to point of harm to health, affected by genetics/metabolic efficiency, excess energy stored as fat |
| sexual motivation | - reproduction - giving/receiving pleasure - share love + intimacy - fulfill duty - conform to peer pressures |
| physiological sex motiv | Masters + Johnson 1966, sexual response cycle = excitement, plateau, climax, resolution hormones = activate sexual desire hypothalamus controls pituitary gland-> p gland controls secretion of gonadotrophiins -> controls secretions of and + estrogens |
| psychological sex motiv | arousal from sex stim received positively - sex fantasy affects physiological function - males fantasize more than females - sex dysfunction = chronic empaired sex function causing distress (impotence, performance anxiety) |
| environmental sex motiv | diff cultures = sex has diff meanings affect sex practices, customs, techniques |
| sex orientation | one's emotional + erotic preference for ppl of certain sex |
| uni dimensional | kinsey scale, sex or defined by one label |
| multidimensional | sex orienttion = ambiguous, varies over time, sx identity, sex attraction, actual sex behaviour sexual configurations theory |
| sexual configurations theory | any motivation to have sex not only defined by self identified gender + orientation, mukt dimensions working in abckground (partner number, kinks, gender/sexuality) which vary over time + in strength of importance |
| need to belong | strong desire to form social bonds w ppl we desitre to be with, strong lasting mutual bonds |
| social affiliation | positive social relashes important to life satisfaction, not everyone has same need to affiliate, varies dep on situation, 4 reasons (Hill, 1987): obtain pos stimulation, receive emosh support, gain attention, permit social comparison |
| religiousness | degree of involvement + personal significance attached to religion/faith |
| intrinsic religiosity | religion = framework for one's life |
| extrinsic religiosity | religion = be part of in group |
| psychological + subjective well being | - general meaning + hope = protection against dep - religion negative correlates w vulnerability to hopelessness + suicidal thinking - religion reduces death anxiety |
| deviation from religious norms | questioning beliefs, related to poorer mental health outcomes + more difficult bereavement in late adulthood |
| new religious movements | group w socially deviant norms, extremist expressions of faith, insular in-groups |
| Categorical/discrete model | - all emotions derived from 7 universal emotions - everyone can read emotions - emotions help us to survive |
| Dimensional approach | - emotions on spectrum of valence + arousal |
| Emotion as a dynamic process | eliciting stim results in cog appraisal, physiological responses, expressive behaviours, interumental behaviours interchangeably |
| Eliciting stimuli | features, events in environ that stim emotiknal responses - external/internal - innate bio factors determine which stim elicit strongest response or unconscious - learning influences emotion |
| Cognitive appraisal | conscious/unconscious evaluation of what is approp emosh response - affects how express + act on emotions - everyone appraises diff culture + appraisals = similar app for happy, angry, idfferent for guilt, shame |
| Physiological responses | - brain structures - hormonal responses - neurotransmitters - autonomic nervous system |
| Expressive behaviours | physical displays of emotion, tells of certain affect (eg smiling, crying) - most can read exp behav - empathy = others emotional displays evoke similar responses in self (evolut, innate emosh espres due to innate emosh reaction) |
| Cultural display rules | differing expectations of approp emotional expression in certain social environs based on cult - dictate when/how diff emotions expressed - ppl generally more accurate at judging emosh of those from own cult group/ingroup |
| Instrumental behaviours | behaviours directed at reaching emotion-relevant goal - relashe btwn emotion = inverted u shape (simple tasks = performance improves at high arousal,, complex tasks = performance drop if arousal too high, intermediate = peak perform at moderate arousal) |
| James Lange Theory | - Emotion happens DUE TO physiological response - Bodily reactions determine subjective emotion Stimuli trigger autonomic nervous system -> emotional response -> emotion |
| Cannon-Bard Theory | Simultaenous physiological + emotional response Thalamus central to emotion Respone to james lange Experience of emotions not cauxed by physiological arousal Stimulus triggers autonomic nervous system + emotional experience SIMULTANEOUSLY |
| Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory | - 1962 - emotion results of 2 components 1. physiological arousal 2. cognitive labelling (how interpret experience) - label arousal based on contest |
| Lasarus Cognitive-Mediational Model | - 1984 - emotions determined by cons/unscons cappraisal/evaluation of sitch - two levels of appraisal 1. primary apprais (decide if threat, stressful or no) 2. secondary app (have emotional/physical resoucres to deal w sitch) 3. emotion |
| Zajonc's Theory | - 1980, 1984 - emotions can occur wo prior cog - feel first, think later (immediate, automatic, unconscious emoshes) - emphasis on speed + primacy of emotional response |
| Somatic | relating to body, distinct from mind - related to james-lange |
| James- lange vs Cannon-bard | - lange = reduced emosh to physical response, unless physiological rep wont have emotion - bard = physiological imp but emosj does not need to be preceded by physiological feedback |
| Personal resources (happiness) | - health, wealth + wisdom NOT related to happiness - happy ppl = more satisfying relashes, do not know causal direction |
| Psychological processes (happiness) | - downward vs upward comparison (down = see ourselves as better off than standard for comparison, up = see ourselves as worse off than standard - downward = increase satisfaction, upward = dissatisfaction |
| Personality factors (happiness) | - sociability - optimism - altruism - curiosity - openness to new experiences - Larsen and Buss. 2002 |
| Cultural factors (happiness) | - individualistic societies = skills + effort contribute to happiness - collectivist = wellbeing of group contributes to happiness |
| World happiness report | - Wellbeing Research Centre at University of Oxford + Gallup - annual report, 260 pgs reporting: - kindness - sharing meals + social connection - household + family bonds - trusting other |
| Relationships (happiness) | - Big effect on swb - Better swb makes us more prosocial - Systematic review = pezirikianidis et al 2023 |
| Rohit et al 2016 (health + swb) | type a personality signif higher in new diagnosed cases of coronary heart disease |
| Denollet 2010 (health + swb) | Quality of life in coronary heart disease - Type D personality = d for distressed ○ Type A = predictor, type D = outcome ○ Low mood, pessimistic, lack of hope, easily irritated ○ Denollet 2010 |
| Denollet + kupper 2018 | 25% of ppl w coronary heart disease = type D personality ○ 2 main traits = social inhibition, negative affect - 'storngly linked w depressed mood, anxiety, stress |
| subjective well being | - emotional responses, degree of satisfaction w various aspects of life - boniwell + tunariu (2019) = satsifaction w life + high pos affect + low neg affect |
| happiness + SWB general stats | - general score = mid point, relative happiness globally - impoverished countries = score lower - sexes = equal in happ - women to experience emopsjes more intensely (pos + neg) |
| Gallup world poll | - Ranking country by happiness - food access, employment, leadership performance, and well-being |
| Country rankings by life evaluation (Cantril) | - Cantril self anchoring scale (cantril, 1965) ○ What step on ladder are you right now ○ What step will you be in 5 years Top = best possible life for you, bottom = worst possible life for you gallup creates country rankings |
| pezirikianidis et al 2023 | Systematic review of 38 empirical articles. see how adult friendships relate to swb ○ Positive associated w swb: § Friendship quality § Perceived emotional support § Time spent together Number of friends |
| gallup world poll outcomes | - SWB pos correlated w ○ Income ○ Social resources ○ Basic needs being met Health |
| gallup groups | - Very happy ○ Life satisf = very high ○ Optimism about future ○ More pos than neg affect - Unhappy ○ Low current + anticipated life satisfaction ○ High neg affect + no pos feelings - average = more sim to v happy, more average |
| Optimism | - Positive expectations abt future (scheier + Carver, 1985) - Having hope + confidence abt future or success of something - Dispositional optimism = optimism characterised as trait ○ Relatively stable across years 25% heritability |
| Pessimism | Scheier and Carver = optimism and pessimism as ‘simply broader versions of confidence or doubt (2009: |
| Expectancy-value theory | - More valuable perceive goal to be, higher value place on that goal - Expectancy = confidence in reaching goal ○ Op = more conf Expectancies = root from past experiences |
| Well-being and health - breast cancer | Less socially withdrawn when going thru breast cancer treatment (carber et al 2003) ○ Decreased distress + higher resilience (carver et al 1993) |
| Relationships | - Higher relashe satis when partners are perceived as more supportive (srivastava et al 2006) Work harder on relashes |
| Optimistic bias | -ppl selectivaly update info processing in pos way korn et al 2014 - partips w dep (18) + ctrl (19) - rate prob of 70 life events occurring (desire + un) - ctrl = veer twrd desire events, optimistic bias updating - dep = not, selectively update ne |
| Defensive pessimism | - Pessimism not always a bad thing - norem + cantor, 1986 > coined ○ Potentially adaptive type of pessimism ○ Be prepared for worst ○ Set lower expectations so can be met ○ Cushion blow of lower performance or potential failure |
| Coping (solberg Nes + Segerstrom, 2006) | - Meta analysis ○ Op + pess differ in coping ○ Op = approach coping styles § Problem focused + emotion focused engagement § Active attempts to change a work w adverse circum ○ Pess = use more avoidant coping styles Repressive etc |
| Positive illusions | - Self enhancement (better-than-average effect) - Overexaggerated sense of control over one's lives + outcomes - Unrealistic optimism abt future ○ Taylor + brown 1988 - Can be viewed as ○ Self deception, Cherry picking more favourable |
| Hope theory | - snyder's hope theory (1991): hope = pos motivational state, based on successful interaction of agency = pathways - determination to achieve goals - wishful thinking |
| well being and health - heart disease | Higher life satisfaction after treatment (fitzgerald et al 1993) + lower symptoms of dep (shneck e al 2001) § Result of optimism ○ Similar patterns for Hiv aids Caregivers |
| Problem focused coping | Taking action to deal w actual stressor/adversity |
| Emotion focused coping | Reduced associated distress/neg emot related to stressor/adversity |
| snyder's hope theory (1991) | 1. goals (desired outcome) - purp in life 2. pathways thinking - gen ways to achieve goals, figure out how, challenge obstacles + adapt 3. agency thinking - actual motivation driving - believing in self, initiating = maintaining journey - |
| better than average effect | - comp our pos quals as better than others. neg as lower (Zell et al 2020) - alicke 1985: partips rate selves + avrg student on 154 traits varying in desireability, rate sleves as better than average on all traits - |
| unrealistic optimism abt future | - jedderson et al 2017 - marsiero et al 2015 - morris et al 2025 |
| Jedderson et al 2017 | prediction unrealistically pos comp to objective likelihood of an event occurring Can create illusion we are safer than others in sitches that may be threatening Optimistic illusions = may adopt riskier lifestyles |
| Marsiero et al 2015 | ○ Smokers, exsmoker + non smokerd surveyed on nictoine dependence + motiv to quit Smokers underrated strength of dependence + believed they were in control |
| Morris et al 2025 | - 597 partips w alc use disorder asked (how likely it is that they/average dev drinking related prob) - higher lvls of drinking = higher unrealistic op abt alc related prov comp to average person |
| Flow | state of optimal experience, complete absorption + enjoyment o task/activity - Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi |
| Optimal experience | - heightened attention + performance - perceived effortlessness |
| Pre-conditions of flow | 1. a clear goal (what want achieve) 2. immediate feedback (some tasks provide quicker than others) 3. balance btwn challenge + skill (otherwise boring or too diff) |
| Characteristics of flow | 1. complete conc (intense focus) 2. merge action + awareness (actions = automatic, effortless, seamless) 3. loss of self-consciousness (lose inner critic) 4. sense of control (conf can handle task) 5. time distortion 6. intrinsic motiv |
| Attention with flow | - flow requires focused atten - brain = limited cap processor (cant attend to everything at once), why no atten on self conc + irrelevant - deep conc on task relevant stim |
| Motivation + reward of flow | - linked to intrinsic motiv (enjoyment, satis), may align w extrinsic goals too (athletes, musicians) |
| neuroscience of flow | 1. dopamine 2. transient hypofrontality theory 3. brain networks |
| Dopamine | - flow associated w dopamine-driven reward systems - why flow pleasureable, seek repeatedly |
| Transient hypofrontality theory | - activity in parts of prefrontal cortex inv in self-monitoring, time-awareness, crit judgement = temporarily reduce - exp loss of self-conc, time distor, effortless action (less cog 2nd guessing) |
| Brain networks | - flow = shift btwn default mode network (mind wandering) + exec control ntwrks (goal-directed atten) - optimal balance btwn them |
| studies | - ulrich et al 2014 - philippe et al 2022 |
| ulrich et al 2014 | - subjective exp + neural correlates of flow - 27 m prtips = arithmetic tasks w fMRI - boredom, flow (adjustd subjectively), overload more active in flow= putamin, inferior frontal gyrus, posterior regions - less act = medial frontal cortex, amygd |
| putamin | linked to motiv, expec of success, goal directed behav |
| inferior frontal gyrus | sense of control, focus, adjusting to task demands |
| posterior regions | attention |
| medial frontal cortex | quieting self consciousness |
| amygdala | arousal |
| philippe et al 2022 | - cond req for prep of elite clge athletes (10) + musicians (12) - elicitation intrvws + thematic anal - pps = given def of flow, asked if exp, recall |
| philippe et al results | results - flow entry = goal scoring, high invlv, ctrl ovr perfor, pos emo sensat - exit = end of perfor, phy experience, mental experience |
| darker side of flow | - atten heightened at expesne of other cog processes (pence machines at arcade, lack of judgement) |
| darker side of flow evidence, flow associated w | - stress + addictive social media use in pandemic (Zhao + ZHao 2021) - gaming addic 9Park + Hwang, 2009) body focused repetitive behavs (unexplored) |
| Stress | -combo of stimulus and response cause phys + distress effect lazarus + cohen 1977 = demans by int/ext environ = upset balance, affect phys/psych well being + require action to restore balance |
| Trauma | lasting neg impact from adverse life event extreme distress experienced - lasting neg impact from adverse life event - extreme distress experienced - can kead to PTSd or Resilience |
| Post-traumatic stress disorder | - severe anx in resp to trauma/trauma event |
| Resilience focused on recovery | - 3 facets of resilience from Lepore and Revenson (2006) |
| Lepore and Revenson's (2006) three facets of resilience | 1. recovery 2. resistance 3. reconfiguration |
| Facilitators of resilience | 1. reframing 2. harvesting resourcing power of pos emosh 3. partip in phys activity 4. active engagement w trustd social support networks 5. recog +using (authentic) strengths 6. deliberate optimism, crafting new + pos life expectations |
| Obstacles of resilience | 1. neg thinking + rumination - challenge w optimistic explanation style 2. thinking traps (eg: overgeneralisation, personalisation, magnifying neg and minimising pos) - challenge w more realistic view of event |
| Sense of coherence and resilience | 1. comprehensability: making sense of event (what are difficulties im exp, what are my achievements) 2. manageability: evaluating if have resources needed to meet demands imposed 3. meaningfulness: self-talk, I matter, makes sense to persevere |
| Coping styles and resilience | problem focused coping - taking action to deal w actual stressor/adversity emotion focused coping - reducing assoc distress/neg emot associated w stressor |
| Post-traumatic growth | - when trauma leads to pos outcome |
| steps of ptsd according to DSM-5 | 1. exposure to stressor 2. instrusion symps (neg thots) 3. avoidance 4. neg alterations in cog + mood 5. alterations in arousal + activ 6. duration of abve for 1 mth+ 7. signif stress/disturb 8. no other cause |
| recovery according to 3 facets of resil | returning to baseline, prestressor functioning |
| resistance according to 3 facets of resil | low indications of disturbance, appear to function well |
| reconfiguration according to 3 facets of resil | - return to homeostasis in diff formation (than recovery) - aspects of individ change (pos/neg) as result of trauma - aids adaptation, potential buffer for fut traumatic events - parallels w post traumatic growth, tho not same |
Created by:
melissa.sjolin