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bio midterm 1
bio phylogenies
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| monophyletic group | includes the most recent common ancestor and all of its descendants |
| convergent trait= | homoplasy |
| derived traits(synapomorphy) | new trait evolves and is then shared by the descendants, differs from the ancestral (or old) trait |
| ancestral traits(plesiomorphy) | found in all members of a group under study-does not provide useful info. ex fur is ancestral in mammals, so not useful. but would be useful info if studying terrestrial vertebrates |
| polyphyletic group | if an investigator groups organisms based on convergent traits, such as wings (including bats, birds, and insects) |
| paraphyletic group | group that includes the most recent common ancestor and most but not all of its descendants :‘bony fish’ is actually paraphyletic because it excludes terrestrial vertebrates, which evolved from one of the lineages of bony fish. |
| the principle of parsimony | the simplest among competing hypotheses is more likely to be correct |
| homology | a similar trait that emerged from a common ancestor |
| homoplasy | a similar trait that did not come from a common ancestor |
| polytomy | more than two branches |
| gram positive | appear purple because they retain the Gram stain in thick peptidoglycan layer |
| gram negetive | thin peptidoglycan layer covered by an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which cannot retain stain, appear pink after Gram stain |
| Transformation | occurs when the bacteria incorporates foreign DNA found in its environment into its genome. |
| Transduction | occurs when the bacteria incorporates foreign DNA into its genome that had been injected into the cell via a bacteriophage (virus that infects bacteria) |
| Conjugation | occurs when two bacteria engage in cell-to-cell contact and one individual transfers DNA into the other. |
| Organisms that gain energy from sunlight are | photo- |
| organisms that gain energy from breaking chemical bonds are | chemo- |
| Organisms that gain electrons via organic compounds are called | organo |
| Organisms that gain electrons via inorganic compounds are called | litho |
| an organism gains carbon via breaking down carbon chains | hetero |
| Organism gains carbon via CO2 | auto |
| define evolution | change in allele frequencies over time in a population |
| allele | version of a gene ex. gene for haircolor, allele for brunette |
| Dawrwin's Postulates: requirements for natural selection to lead to evolution | 1. variation in a trait 2. trait must be heritable from parent to offspring 3. trait must lead to different reproductive success |
| ORGANIC means | carbon based |
| describe the process of chemical evolution | simple gases in atmos.-simple compounds form-complex organic molecules form-complex org mlcls form polymer chains- self replicating mlcls |
| prebiotic soup model | mlcls acculumated in oceans, larger complexer mlcls form-self replicating molecule like RNA |
| surface metabolism model | at deep sea Hydrothermal vents dissolved gases mixed with minerals- self replicating molecule like RNA |
| what causes divergence/speciation? | reproductive isolation |
| biological species concept | if dey can produce fertile offspring under natural conditions then they same species |
| morphological species concept | if dey look alike they same species |
| phylogenetic species concept | the members of the smallest monophyletic group are the same species, an ancestor and all its descendents |
| synapomorphy | shared derived trait |
| plesiomorphy | ancestral trait, also found in outgroup |
| does a paraphyletic group include the MRCA? | yes |
| does a monophyletic group include the MRCA? | yes |
| does a polyphyletic group include the MRCA? | no |
| what cellular features define prokaryotes? | lack membrane-bound nucleus all are haploid:single copy of one big circular chromosome |
| metabolism | the chemical processes within a living organism which maintain life |
| gram negetive bacteria | evolved more than once! not monophyletic cell walls have a thin layer of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane, stains pink |
| should you use cell wall composition to make a phylogeny of bacteria? | NO! gram negative bacteria evolved more than once |
| cellular metabolism requires three things: | energy electons(etc making atp) carbon(required to build many of the chemicals) |
| if an organism gains energy by breaking chemical bonds | chemotroph- humans break down organic mlcls: glucose, fat bacteria in deep sea vents and sulfur springs, break down inorganic mlcls like ammonia, iron |
| If an organism's carbon source is organic carbon | heterotroph pre made mlcls made by other organisms (ex. glucose, fat, proteins) |
| if an organisms carbon source is inorganic carbon | CO2 autotroph makes it itself, like plants photosynthesize |
| In the first 2.5 billion years of earth there was no... | oxygen |
| explain photosynthesis | light energy excites electons which jump to higher orbit in valence shells, when they relax they release energy which can be used to make ATP |
| HETEROTROPHS NEED GLUCOSE TO EXCITE ELECTRONS | Glucose is broken down (in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle) which releases electrons (in the form of high-energy electrons on carriers like NADH and FADH₂) Those electrons go to the Electron Transport Chain |
| fixation means | making something stable or usable CO₂ is a gas and can’t be directly used by most organisms to build things like sugars, proteins, or fats in carbon fixation, organisms “fix” the carbon by turning CO₂ into stable organic molecules, like glucose. |
| chemosynthesis uses to make | uses non-light energy to fix CO2 into organic molecules like glucose |
| how do prokaryotes reprodce | all bacteria and archaea reproduce via binary fission |
| binary fission | cell splits into two daughter cells |
| name one situation where the less parsimonious tree is correct | lateral gene transfer causes same traits among unrelated taxa |
| to help with avoiding LGT issues when make trees: | avoid genes that code for antibiotic resistance use multiple genes |
| Actinobacteria | many species of actinobacteria are natural antibiotics-they evolved to kill bacteria |
| C diff (Clostridioides difficile) | antibiotics kill all your healthy bacteria and you shit out everything and need a poop transplant to get your microbiome back |
| 5 requirements of life | energy, info(DNA), reproduction, evolution, cellular |
| The cell theory | All cells come from pre existing cells All organisms are made of cells |
| What are the two leading hypotheses for the first self replicating molecule | RNA world hypothesis RNA/ Peptide hypothesis |
| actinobacteria | leprosy, Tb Tb- lungs damage, bleeding, lesions leprosy- deformities, sores |
| chlamydiae | chlamydia ectopic pregnancy, burning pee |
| Cyanobacteria | HABS some have organelles that fix nitrogen |
| Firmicutes | tetantus, c diff lockjaw. diarrhea |
| Proteobacteria | E coli, Cholera, meningitis Blood diarrhea. water diarrheea. Brain swelling |
| Spirochaetes | Lyme disease, syphilis bulls eye rash/fever. sores |
| what is a cell | smallest unit of life |
| implications of cell theory | 1. all cells in a population of single-celled organisms are related by common ancestry 2. all cells in multicelluar organism are descended from a single cell |
| info molecule(DNA) must: | code to produce traits be stored and transmitted generationally |
| DNA mutation can lead to | change/no change in proteins change/no change in outward appearance |
| fitness is defined as | # off healthy offspring produced |
| Darwins Postulates | 1.variation in a trait 2. trait is heritable 3. trait leads to higher fitness |
| chemical evolution definition | formation of complex organic(carbon-based) molecules from simpler inorganic molecules, in oceans |
| the most versatile element on earth is | carbon. 4 valence electrons means many covalent bonds |
| at which step does chem evolution become biological evolution? | 2 Hypotheses: Prebiotic soup model, surface metabolism model |
| first self-replicating mlcl would need to | 1. store info 2. catalyze chemical reactions |
| RNA World Hypothesis | first mlcl was RNA- it did both requirements by itself acted as both genetic material(like DNA) and a catalyst(like an enzyme) |
| RNA Peptide Hypothess | co-evolved, RNA stored info, Peptide(short amino-acid chain) was catalyst |
| gram negetive becteria do not retain the dye for two reasons | they have an outer membrane before the peptidoglycan wall the peptidoglycan layer they do have is much thinner |
| PROKARYOTE DEFINING FEATURES | Lack a membrane bound nucleus One singular circular copy of DNA (haploid) |
| Archaen Cell Wall is | Diverse, but no peptidoglycan |
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