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Stack #4532490
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| cephal/o | head |
| cerebell/o | cerebellum |
| cerebr/o | cerebrum |
| dur/o | tough |
| encephal/o | brain |
| gangil/o | ganglion |
| gli/o | glue |
| medull/o | medulla |
| mening/o | meninges |
| myel/o | spinal cord |
| neur/o | nerve |
| poli/o | gray matter |
| Central nervous system (CNS) | Brain and spinal cord Body’s neural control system |
| Peripheral nervous system (PNS) | Located outside the nervous system Consists of nerves and sensory receptors |
| has 2 divisions | receptors and effectors |
| Sensory division (afferent or incoming) | Carries impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS |
| motor division | Carries impulses from CNS to effectors Motor division has 2 subdivisions |
| sensory divisions are | somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system |
| somatic | voluntary control of skeletal muscles |
| Autonomic nervous system | Involuntary control of cardiac muscle smooth muscle and glands |
| Autonomic nervous system has 2 subdivisions | parasympathetic and sympathetic |
| Parasympathetic | sends electrical messages to carry out functions for vegetative activities such as digestion defecation and urination |
| Sympathetic | sends electrical messages to prepare the body for physical activity such as fight or flight |
| Nervous system | CNS |
| CNS | brain |
| brain | cerebrum |
| Cerebrum | frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and insula |
| Diencephalon | hypothalamus thalamus |
| Brainstem | medulla oblongata pons midbrain reticular formation |
| PNS | Afferent (incoming) Efferent (outgoing) |
| PNS is | somatic, automatic |
| efferent includes | parasympathetic, symphathetic |
| Neurons have basically 3 parts | dendrites that receive information cell bodies that are involved in protein synthesis and axons that transmit electrical impulses |
| Axons may or may not have a | myelin sheath which insulates the axon and gives it a white appearance |
| White matter of the brain and spinal cord is a concentration of | myelinated axons |
| Gray matter in the brain and spinal cords is a concentration of | dendrites |
| types of neurons | multipolar bipolar unipolar nasal cavity retina inner ear sensory afferent |
| Multipolar neuron | several dendrites single axon Neurons whose cell bodies are located in the brain and spinal cord Brain and spinal cord Motor (for many multipolar neurons) Efferent (if they’re motor neurons) |
| Bipolar neurons | occur in the sensory portions of the eyes ears and nose |
| bipolar neurons have 2 processes | dendrite and axon |
| Unipolar neurons | Unipolar neurons are sensory from the skin and organs Skin organs etc sensory afferent |
| 1 process that serves as dendrite and axon extending from the cell body in unipolar neuron | Process divides into 2 branches extending in opposite directions Branches function as a single axon |
| There are 6 types of Neuroglia cells that aid in neuron function | oligondrocytes, ependymal cells, astrocytes, microglia, schwann cells, satellite cells |
| Oligodendrocytes | CNS Form myelin in the CNS |
| Ependymal cells | CNS Produce cerebrospinal fluid |
| Astrocytes | CNS form the blood-brain barrier regulate composition of CSF and form scar tissue |
| Microglia | CNS Provide protection by seeking and removing damaged cells debris and pathogens |
| Schwann cells | PNS Form myelin in the PNS and help damaged myelinated axons regulate |
| Satellite cells | PNS Regulate the chemical environment of ganglia in the PNS |
| The brain and spinal cord are covered with 3 membranes called | meninges |
| Meninges are | 3 fibrous membranes |
| 3 fibrous membranes are | dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater |
| Dura mater | Tough outermost layer Attached to cranial bones |
| Epidural space | between the dura mater and vertebrae |
| Arachnoid mater | Middle layer Thin weblike avascular Doesn’t penetrate smaller depressions like the pia |
| Subarachnoid space | between the arachnoid mater and pia mater and filled with cerebrospinal fluid |
| Pia mater | Thin innermost layer closest to the brain and spinal cord Adheres to CNS structure surfaces Contain blood vessels to nourish brain and spinal cord |
| Functions of CSF | Provides buoyancy Provides protection by cushioning brain from impact Facilities chemical stability Provides nutrients to CNS tissues |
| Facilities chemical stability | CSF rinses metabolic wastes from the brain and spinal cord and helps regulate the chemical environment |
| Brain has 4 subdivisions | cerebrum diencephalon brainstem cerebellum |
| Cerebrum | characterized by gyri and sulci |
| frontal parietal temporal occipital | It’s divided into hemispheres that are further divided into 4 main lobes |
| Each lobe has a general sensory area and an association area for | senses |
| Cerebrum | Surface shows numerous gyri (folds) with sulci (shallow grooves) between them Left and right cerebral hemispheres |
| Left and right cerebral hemispheres | Separated by longitudinal fissure Connected by corpus callosum |
| Cerebral cortex | Outer surface of gray matter |
| Outer surface of gray matter | Neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers |
| White matter beneath the cortex | Myelinated fibers transmit impulses |
| Myelinated fibers transmit impulses | Between hemispheres Between cerebral cortex & lower brain areas |
| Several gray matter masses are deep in the | white matter |
| Cerebrum | Largest subdivision divided into 2 hemispheres Characterized by gyri and sulci Divided into lobes |
| Frontal lobe | Contains premotor and primary motor areas Motivation & aggression are located here Contains Broca’s area for language |
| Parietal lobe | Sense of touch is located here Higher-level processes for math and problem solving are located here |
| temporal lobe | Sense of hearing is here Contains wernick’s area for language |
| Occipital lobe | Sense of vision is here |
| Insula | Not much is known |
| Limbic system | Complex of deep nuclei of cerebrum |
| Complex of deep nuclei of cerebrum | Associated with the thalamus of the diencephalon |
| limbic system is involved in | memory (hippocampus) emotions (amygdala) and emotional behaviors |
| Malfunctions can result in | mood disorders |
| Thalamus | acts as a switching station for incoming sensory messages it directs the sensory messages to the appropriate lobe of the cerebrum |
| Hypothalamus | monitors the internal environment and helps regulate temperature heart rate digestive and urinary and endocrine functions food and water intake and sexual development |
| Diencephalon | Located deep to the cerebrum |
| Thalamus | Switching station for incoming messages sends messages to appropriate lobes of the cerebrum |
| Hypothalamus | Monitoring station for maintaining homeostasis Regulates temperature Performs autonomic and endocrine functions |
| Brainstem is composed of | medulla oblongata pons midbrain and reticular formation |
| Brainstem | Located in the cranial cavity inferior to the diencephalon and anterior to the cerebellum All parts include tracts of neurons traveling to and from the spinal cord |
| Midbrain | Appears as a hook Has colliculi for vision and hearing |
| Pons | Appears as a bulge between the midbrain and the cerebellum Serves as a bridge to the cerebellum for efferent motor messages |
| Medulla oblongata | Most inferior part of the brainstem Motor messages cross sides at the pyramids Contains centers to regulate heart rate blood pressure respiratory rate and blood vessel diameter |
| Recirculate formation | Groups of cell bodies located through the brainstem Determines if sensory messages will be consciously perceived by the cerebrum Responsible for sleep-wake cycle |
| Reticular formation | Groups of cell bodies (called nuclei in the CNS ganglia in the PNS) are scattered throughout the brain It’s responsible for the sleep-wake cycle |
| The reticular formation is important for arousal as it determines | whether sensory messages will be noticed by the cerebrum |
| Cerebellum | 2nd largest brain region Inferior to the occupational and temporal lobes posterior to the pins and medulla oblongata 2 hemispheres connected by the vermis |
| arbor vitae | Outer layer of gray matter surrounding inner white matter |
| Functions of the cerebellum | Controls and coordinates the interaction of skeletal muscles Controls posture balance and muscle coordination Receives sensory messages concerning the position of limbs muscles and joints Responsible for reflexive memory |
| Responsible for reflexive memory | Important in keyboarding (typing and playing piano) and martial arts |
| Cerebellum | Receives input of body-part location Uses that information in fine-tuning efferent motor messages to maintain coordination balance and smooth motions |
| Spinal cord | Consists of 31 pairs of nerves |
| Spinal cord is a solid structure from | foramen magnum to L1 |
| Cauda equina extends from | L1-L35 |
| Spinal cord has gray matter in the form of an | “H” and white matter arranged in columns |
| Gray matter is | internal and butterfly shaped |
| interneurons | Composed of dendrites cell bodies and short unmyelinated neurons |
| White matter surrounds the | gray matter |
| white matter contains | myelinated axons of neurons arranged in columns |
| Functions of the spinal cord | Transmits impulses to and from the brain Reflex center for spinal reflexes |
| Transmits impulses to and from the brain | Ascending (sensory) tracts Descending (motor) tracts |
| Nerve is arranged similarly to a muscle with | fascicles and connective tissue |
| Endoneurium | surrounds the axon of an individual neuron |
| Perineurium | surrounds the bundles of axons |
| Epineurium | surrounds bundle of fascicles |
| 3 nerve classifications | sensory motor and mixed |
| Sensory | afferent only |
| Motor | efferent only |
| Mixed | afferent and efferent |
| 12 pairs of cranial nerves attach directly to the brain they can be classified as | sensory motor of both |
| Olfactory nerve | Sensory, Sensory for smell |
| Optic | Sensory Sensory of vision |
| Oculomotor | Motor Motor for eye movement |
| Trochlear | Motor Motor for eye movement |
| Trigeminal | Both Sensory for pain touch and temperature for the eyes and lower and upper jaws, motor for muscles for chewing |
| Abducens | Motor Motor for eye movement |
| Facial | Both Sensory for taste, motor for facial expression |
| Auditory (vestibulocochlear) | Sensory Sensory for hearing and equilibrium |
| Glossopharyngeal | Both Sensory for taste, motor for swallowing |
| Vagus | Both Sensory and motor for organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities, motor for larynx |
| Accessory | Motor Motor for the trapezius sternocleidomastoid and muscles of the larynx |
| Hypoglossal | Motor Motor for the tongue |
| Spinal nerves | 31 pairs of spinal nerves |
| Cervical | C1-C5 |
| Thoracic | T1-T12 |
| Lumbar | L1-L5 |
| Sacrum | S1-S5 |
| Coccyx 1 | 1 |
| Each spinal nerve splits into 2 nerve roots | as it approaches the cord |
| Dorsal root contains a | ganglion and carries sensory/afferent messages |
| Ventral root carries | motor/efferent messages |
| Dermatomes | Each sensory nerve is responsible for carrying messages from specific areas of the skin and are mapped in dermatomes |
| Autonomic nervous system | Purpose is to maintain homeostasis in response to changes in internal conditions |
| Purpose is to maintain homeostasis in response to changes in internal conditions | Carries efferent messages Effects cardiac muscles smooth muscle and glands Uses involuntary reflexes |
| Uses 2 motor neurons to relay | impulses to effectors |
| Preganglionic neuron extends from | CNS to automatic ganglion |
| Postganglionic neuron extends from | ganglion to visceral effector |
| Autonomic neurotransmitters | Divisions differ in the neurotransmitters used at synapses |
| All preganglionic neurons use | acetylcholine |
| Parasympathetic postganglionic use | acetylcholine |
| Sympathetic postganglionic use | norepinephrine |
| ANS is subdivided into | Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division |
| Sympathetic division | Carries messages to prepare the body for fight or flight response heart beats faster blood vessels dilate decrease blood flow to digestive organs |
| Parasympathetic division | Carries messages for everyday body maintenance functions such as digestion and elimination of waste it has a calming effect on the body |
| Nerve impulses | Local potentials start a dendrite and travel toward the trigger zone local potential has the following characteristics |
| Graded | strength determined by the amount of sodium that enters the cell |
| Decrimental | effects decrease with distance |
| Reversible | returns to normal after stimulation |
| Excitatory | ability of local potential to cause a neuron to send a signal |
| Inhibitory | ability of local potential to prevent a neuron from sending a signal |
| Action potential | flow of electricity along an axon of a neuron in 1 direction |
| They require a threshold and have an | all-or-nothing effect |
| They aren’t graded decrimental or | reversible |
| Myelination allows for the | speed of an action potential |
| Reflex | involuntary predictable motor response to a stimulus without conscious thought it’s a very fast response |
| Reflex occurs in a | reflex arch that involves a receptor an afferent sensory neuron an integration center in the CNS an efferent motor neuron and an effector |
| Reflex arch involves | reflex receptor afferent neuron integration center efferent neuron effectors |
| Receptor | dendrite of a neuron receiving the stimulus |
| Afferent neuron (sensory) | neuron that has an action potential carrying the signal to the CNS |
| Integration center | either the brain or spinal cord |
| Efferent neuron (motor) | neuron that has an action potential carrying a signal away from the CNS |
| Effector | structure causing the effect |
| Skeletal muscle | somatic reflex |
| Gland smooth or cardiac muscle | automatic reflex |
| There are 3 types of memory | immediate short and long term |
| Immediate memory last a | few seconds |
| Short-term memory last a | few seconds to a few hours forgetting results if there’s a distraction |
| Long-term memory results from | chemical changes in the neuron |
| This results in cellular changes including the | growth of dendrites and the formation of new connections |
| Wernicke’s area | located in the temporal lobe it’s used to interpret incoming language |
| Broca’s area | located in the frontal lobe it’s used to find the words for outgoing language |
| Fast efficient communication of 1 part of the body with another part using | action potential |
| Function can be demonstrated through | identifying pathways |
| Sodium and potassium are needed | throughout life to maintain resting membrane potentials |
| Fat is necessary in the diet especially for | children to ensure the proper myelination of developing neurons |
| Cognitive ability increases in the | young remains stable in adulthood and declines in old age |
| Definition of old age differs for | each individual |
| Short-term memory is affected | early |
| Verbal skills decline around | 70 yrs old |
| Intellectual performance may remain high until around | 80 |
| Reaction times slow as neurons become | less efficient |
| Number of neurons in the brain decrease | with age |
| Lumbar puncture (spinal tap) | procedure used to collect and analyze CSF surrounding the brain and spinal cord |
| Nerve conduction study | procedure that assess the conduction of nerve impulses along peripheral nerves by using electrodes to stimulate the nerve while reading the conduction of the impulses as it reaches its end point |
| Alzheimer’s disease | progressive irreversible disease of the brain that’s characterized by dementia |
| Cerebral palsy | group of symptoms that occur following injury to the brain prenatally perinatally or postnatally |
| Cerebrovascular accident | death of brain tissue due to a lack of blood supply |
| Concussion | injury of the brain resulting from impact |
| Depression | mental disorder caused by an imbalance of neurotransmitters that affect a person’s mood by altering the way he or she thinks sleeps eats and works |
| Encephalitis | swelling of the brain that’s usually caused by a bacterial or viral infection |
| Epilepsy | condition that’s characterized by recurrent seizures |
| Gliomas | tumor cells formed by Neuroglia |
| Huntington’s disease | genetic disease that destroys brain cells responsible for movement and coordination |
| Hydrocephalus | condition resulting from excess CSF buildup in the brain |
| Meningitis | inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord |
| Multiple sclerosis | disease characterized by demyelination of the axon |
| Paralysis | loss of muscle function due to an interruption in the pathway between the brain and muscles |
| Parkinson’s disease | degenerative disorder of the brain characterized by tremors and slow uncoordinated movements |
| Rabies virus | virus transmitted by infected animals to humans the virus can cause acute encephalitis |
| audi/o | hearing |
| aur/o | ear |
| cochle/o | cochlea |
| corne/o | cornea |
| lacrim/o and lith/o | tears |
| ocul/o and opthalm/o | eye |
| opt/o | eye, vision |
| ot/o | ear |
| presby/o | old age |
| propri/o | own |
| retin/o | retina |
| scler/o | sclera |
| tympan/o | eardrum |
| special senses are | taste smell hearing equilibrium and vision |
| General senses are | touch pressure stretch heat cold and pain receptors for general senses are located throughout the body |
| general senses are located in | in the head |
| General senses are detected by | thermoreceptors mechanoreceptors and nociceptors |
| Thermoreceptors | temperature |
| Mechanoreceptors | touch vibration stretch and pressure |
| Nociceptors | tissue injury |
| FNE Bare dendrites with | no associated connective tissue |
| FNE Widespread throughout the | skin and mucous membranes |
| FNE Thermoreceptors for | heat and cold nociceptors for pain |
| Tactile corpuscles | 2 or 3 nerve fibers among flattened Schwann cells forming a pear like structure |
| Dermal papillae of the skin highly concentrated in the | fingertips and palmar skin |
| Mechanoreceptors for | light touch and texture |
| HF Bare dendrites with | no associated connective tissue |
| HF Wrapped around the | base of a hair follicle |
| HF Mechanoreceptors for any light touch that | bends a hair |
| LC Single dendrite surrounded by flattened Schwann cells that in turn | surrounded by fibroblasts giving a layered appearance are like tree rings |
| LC Deep in the dermis | (especially on the hands breasts and genitals) |
| LC Mechanoreceptors for deep | pressure stretch and vibration |
| BC Long flattened capsules with a | few nerve fibers |
| BC Dermis of the | skin |
| BC Mechanoreceptors for | heavy touch pressure and stretching of the skin |
| TD Flattened nerve | endings |
| TD Stratum basale of the epidermis next to | specialized tactile cells |
| TD Mechanoreceptors for | light touch |
| 4 kinds of information are transmitted to the brain | sensation, location, intensity, and duration |
| Type of sensation | brain knows the function of the neuron by its pathway |
| Location | each neuron in the skin is responsible for detecting a stimulus in a given area this is known as a receptive field |
| Intensity | some receptors are more sensitive the number of signals matters the frequency matters |
| The pathway can be the same as any | other sensory input from the skin |
| The signal may take a | different pathway |
| Special senses for taste is the | taste bud |
| Lingual papilla are the | bumps on the tongue |
| Taste buds are located | mostly on the tongue and contain different cells |
| Taste cells are | epithelial cells with sensory neurons at their base they have taste hairs that are chemoreceptors they secrete a neurotransmitter to stimulate the sensory neuron at their base |
| Basal cells are stem cells that | replace dead taste cells |
| Support cells physically support the | 50-150 taste cells in each taste bud |
| There are 5 primary tastes | salt sweet sour bitter and umami (meaty taste) |
| Other sensory inputs are used to | produce the sensations of flavor |
| The pathway for taste uses | 3 cranial nerves and ends in the parietal lobe |
| The 3 cranial nerves that carry sensory messages for taste are | CN 7,9, and 10 |
| Olfaction is the | sense of smell |
| Olfactory cells access the olfactory mucosa of the roof of the nasal cavity through the | foramen of the cribriform plate |
| Olfactory cells have | bipolar neurons |
| Olfactory hairs are | chemoreceptors |
| Each olfactory cell has | 1 type of receptor to detect 1 particular odor |
| The binding of an odor molecule to the receptor initiates a | local potential |
| Cranial nerve 1 is the | olfactory nerve |
| The pathway for smell involves | the olfactory nerve and doesn’t go through the thalamus on its way to the frontal lobe |
| Physical factors initiated by the | hypothalamus include coughing and sneezing |
| The amygdala is responsible for the | emotional reactions to odors |
| Frequency of sound waves measured in hertz determines | pitch |
| Volume is measured in | decibels |
| Ear is the organ of | hearing |
| It’s made up of 3 major parts | external, internal, and middle ear |
| External ear consists of 2 parts | pinna external auditory canal |
| Pinna | Funnel-like structure made of cartilage and skin Attached to the side of head |
| External auditory canal | Short tube extending from pinna to eardrum Contains ceremonious glands |
| Sound waves hitting the pinna enter the | auditory canal |
| Ceruminous glands produce | cerumen |
| Coats hair in the auditory canal to keep | foreign particles from reaching the eardrum |
| Has lysosomes and low ph to deter | bacteria |
| Swimmer’s ear | Infection in the outer ear is called otitis externa also known as swimmer’s ear |
| Can be distinguished from an infection in the middle ear by pulling on the | earlobe |
| If the pain increases when it’s pulled it’s an | outer-ear infection |
| If pain doesn’t increase when it’s pulled it’s a | middle-ear infection |
| Middle ear (4 components) | tympanic membrane, tympanic cavity, auditory tube, ear ossicles |
| Function is to amplify the vibration of the | tympanic membrane |
| Tympanic membrane (eardrum) | Closes the interior to the external auditory canal |
| Externally covered in skin internally covered in | mucous membrane |
| Sound waves cause the membrane to vibrate | in and out at the same frequency |
| Separates the outer ear from the | middle ear |
| Tympanic cavity | Air-filled space in temporal bone separated from external auditory canal by tympanic membrane |
| Auditory tube (eustachian tube) | Allows for air pressure in the tympanic cavity to equal external air pressure |
| Connects tympanic cavity with the | pharynx |
| Essential for eardrum to function | properly |
| Ear “popping” is equalizing the | pressure |
| Ear ossicles | 3 tiny bones forming a level system between tympanic membrane and inner ear |
| 3 tiny bones are | malleus incus stapes |
| Vibrations from tympanic membrane pass from | malleus to incus to stapes |
| Stapes vibrates on the oval window of the | inner window |
| Inner ear | 2 series of conducting tubes and chambers embedded 1 inside the other |
| conducting tubes are | outer bone and inner membranous labyrinth |
| outer bone and inner membranous labyrinth | Functional fluids in the inner ear |
| Perilymph | fill the semilunar canals |
| Endolymph | fill the cochlear duct |
| Inner ear consists of 3 major parts | cochlea vestibule and semilunar canals |
| Cochlae | located in the bony labyrinth coiled portion |
| 3 chambers separated by membranes | scala vestibule, tympani, and media |
| Scala vestibule | vestibular duct containing perilymph |
| Scala tympani | tympanic duct containing perilymph |
| Scala media | cochlear duct containing endolymph separated from scala vestibuli by the vestibular membrane separated from scala tympani by basilar membrane have bipolar neurons at its base |
| Basilar membrane contains | 20,000 cross hairs |
| Cross hairs (mechanoreceptors) increase in | length from the base to apex of the cochlea |
| Fibers attach to bony centers of cochlea | cochlea |
| Can vibrate when activated by | vibrations made from sound |
| Oval window | Vibrations of this structure create waves within the perilymph of the cochlear tube Separates the stapes from the cochlea |
| Round window | Nerve fibers for the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve exit each hair cell |
| Organ of corti is in the | upper surface of basilar membrane |
| hair cells | It contains sound receptors |
| Hair cells extend | cilia towards overlying tectorial membrane |
| The human ear can detect sound waves ranging from | 30 to 20,000 vibrations per sound |
| Most acute between | 2,000 to 3,000 vibrations per second |
| Sound waves must be transmitted to the hair cells of the | origin of corti |
| Sound waves cause vibrations of the same frequency in the | tympanic membrane |
| Vibrations lead to vibration of | stapes on the oval window |
| Vibrations of the oval window creates waves in the | perilymph of the cochlear tube |
| The wave pushes on the vestibular membrane | cause a wave in the endolymph |
| Perilymph movement causes movement of | vestibular and basilar membranes |
| Vibrations of the basilar membrane causes | hair cells to contact the tectorial membrane |
| Hair cell contact triggers | impulses formation by the hair cells |
| Hair cells release | neurotransmitters to the bipolar neurons at their base |
| Action potentials are carried by the | cochlear nerve to the brain |
| Pitch and loudness | Different portions of the basilar membrane vibrate in accordance with different frequencies (pitch) of sound waves |
| Low pitch vibrates | longer basilar fibers |
| High pitch vibrates | shorter basilar fibers |
| Pitch is determined by | Portion of basilar membrane and organ of corti activated by a sound frequency The hearing centers receive the impulses |
| Loudness depends on the | intensity of the vibration of the basilar membrane and organ of corti |
| Intensity determines | frequency of impulse formation |
| Greater frequency means | louder sound sensations |
| Bipolar neurons of CN 8 (auditory nerve) | Pons |
| Pons | Midbrain (inferior colliculi) |
| Midbrain (inferior colliculi) | thalamus |
| Thalamus | temporal lobe |
| There are 2 types of equilibrium | static and dynamic |
| Static equilibrium | when the head is motionless |
| Dynamic equilibrium | when the head is moving |
| Receptors for both types of equilibrium are located in the | vestibular apparatus |
| Static equilibrium | The macula is the organ of static equilibrium |
| The macula is the organ of static equilibrium | Inside the utricle and saccule Contains thousands of hair cells |
| Hair cell cilia are embedded in a | gelatinous mass containing otoliths |
| Otoliths accomplish 2 tasks | Increase the weight of the gelatinous mass Make it more responsive to the force of gravity |
| Dynamic equilibrium | Semicircular canals contain receptors that detect motion of the head |
| Canals are oriented at | 90 degrees to each other |
| Each canal is attached to utricle by an | ampulla |
| Each ampulla possesses a | crista ampullaris |
| Sensory organ for dynamic equilibrium | Contains hair cells with processes extending into a cupula Connected to fibers from vestibulocochlear nerve |
| Several sensory receptors are involved | involved |
| Receptors in | joints and muscles eyes and inner ear |
| Mechanism of static equilibrium | Pull of gravity on gelatinous mass causes hair cells to form impulses |
| Mechanism of dynamic equilibrium | When head turns endolymph pushes on the cupula Hair cells bend causing impulses to form |
| Riding roller coasters will challenge your | equilibrium |
| Motion sickness may occur if your brain | can’t receive accurately interpret the information it’s receiving |
| pathway of equilibrium | bipolar neuron of CN 8, medulla oblongata (cranial nerves 3,4,8 and spinal cord), pons, cerebrum, pons, midbrain, thalamus, (parietal lobe), frontal lobe |
| The cerebellum uses this information to | subconsciously maintain static equilibrium |
| Conscious awareness only occurs | when interpretation occurs in the cerebrum |
| Uses light receptors to detect | light |
| Light is emitted from a | source |
| Light travels in | straight lines |
| Light can bend as it passes through | materials of different densities known as refraction |
| Eyelids keep the eyes moist by | spreading tears and mucus |
| Tarsal glands | secrete an oil to help lubricate the eye |
| Conjunctiva | lines the eyelids and covers the white part of the eye |
| Eyelashes keep out | airborne particles and protect excessive light |
| Eyebrows shield the eyes | from overhead light |
| Conjunctivitis | Redness and pain Commonly known as “pink eye” Highly contagious bacterial infection |
| Rectus and oblique muscles stimulated by | CN 3,4, and 9 move the eye |
| The wall of the eye has 3 layers the | sclera uvea and retina |
| Lacrimal apparatus | tear production |
| Tear production | Lacrimal gland produces tears |
| Lacrimal gland produces tears | Lacrimal ducts carry tears to eye surface |
| Tear functions | keep eyes moist, wash away foreign particles and contain lysosomes to reduce infection chances |
| Tear removal | Collect at inner corner of eye Drain into superior and inferior canaliculi into lacrimal sac and into nasolacrimal duct |
| Muscles of the eye | 6 muscles that originate on the back of the eye orbit and insert into the eyeball |
| eye muscle function as a | coordinated group to enable eye movements |
| Eyeball | hollow and spherical roughly 2.5 cm in diameter |
| Wall is composed of 3 layers | sclera uvea and retina |
| Interior spaces are filled with fluids to | support and maintain eye shape these fluids include the aqueous humor and vitreous body |
| Layers of the eye | sclera cornea uvea retina |
| Sclera | outermost layer of the eye Tough fibrous opaque white portion of the eye Provides protection for delicate internal portions of eye and optic nerve |
| Cornea | anterior convex clear window of the eye Bends light rays as they pass through it Lacks blood vessels and nerves |
| Uvea | middle layer of the eye |
| Choroid layer | Has large blood vessels to nourish the eye Has melanin to prevent backscattering of light |
| Ciliary body | Has ciliary muscles that surround the lens Can change shapes of lens Suspenders ligaments between ciliary body and lens holds the lens in place Produces aqueous humor |
| Iris | colored portion of the eye |
| the iris controls the | amount of light entering the eye by controlling the size of the pupil |
| Pupil | opening in the center of the iris that allows light to pass into the eye |
| Constricted in | bright light |
| Dilated in | dim light |
| Retina | Lines the interior of the eye posterior to the ciliary body |
| Optic disc | Blood vessels enter and exit the eye Axons exit the eye |
| No photoreceptor cells means | blind spot |
| Macula lutea | Yellowish disc on the retina that has more cones than rods Contains the fovea centralis which contains only cones is the area of sharpest vision |
| Cones | Most concentrated at the fovea centralis Requires more light than rods Used for color vision Responsible for best visual acuity |
| Rods | Used for noncolor vision and low light conditions |
| Density increases with distance from | fovea |
| Least concentrated at the | fovea centralis |
| Glaucoma | |
| Because aqueous humor is constantly being produced it must | constantly be reabsorbed into the blood |
| If this doesn’t occur pressure builds up in the anterior portion of the eye and causes an | increase in intraocular pressure |
| Major cause of | blindness |
| Light must be refracted precisely so it’s | focused on the retina |
| Cornea does the | largest refraction |
| Lens performs | accommodation to provide fine adjustment |
| Accommodation helps focus | light on the retina |
| Involves adjusting the | shape of the lens for distance intermediate and near vision |
| For distant vision | Ciliary muscles relax Tension on suspensory ligaments is high Lens flattens |
| For near vision | Ciliary muscles contract Suspensory ligaments have low tension Lens thickens |
| Myopia | nearsightedness |
| Nearsightedness | can see things close up but not far away |
| Cornea and lens focus on the image | ahead of the retina |
| Hyperopia | Farsightedness |
| Farsightedness | can see things far away but not close up |
| Cornea and lens focus the image | behind the retina |
| Pathway for vision | Photoreceptor impulses are transmitted along the optic nerve (CN 2) to the brain The 2 optic nerves meet at the optic chiasm Fibers from the medial half of the retina cross to the opposite side |
| Fibers from the medial half of the retina cross to the opposite side | optic nerve chiasm then tracts |
| tracts | Thalamus Superior colliculi of midbrain Occipital lobe |
| In general the senses are affected by aging but | it’s not clear if its itself or lifestyle choices environmental exposures and/or diseases that are actually responsible most sensory ability decreases with age with some senses being more affected than others |
| Pain sensitivity usually reduces at | 50 |
| Decrease in the number and size of taste buds occurs | after 50 |
| Taste sensitivity decreases | after 60 |
| Number of olfactory nerve endings decreases by | 70 |
| 30% of people over 65 have | significant hearing loss |
| Presbyopia and presbycusis can | occur |
| Decreased tear production leads to | dryer eyes |
| Lens become less | flexible and cloudy |
| Insoluable proteins form in the | fluid of the eye |
| Ishihara test | test for color blindness |
| Rinne or Weber test | procedures in which a tuning fork is used to test for hearing loss |
| Snellen test | eye chart used to measure visual activity |
| Tonometry | procedure that measures the pressure inside the eye |
| Conductive hearing loss is caused by a | lesion in the outer or middle ear that prevents the proper conduction of vibrations to the inner ear can be caused by a thickening or ruptured by a thickened or ruptured t m impacted cerumen or arthritis in the joints of the ossicles |
| Sensorineural hearing loss is a problem with the | organ of corti or the auditory nerve |
| Tinnitus | persistent abnormal ear ringing or roaring noise is common in the elderly |
| Weber test | vibrating tuning fork is placed on the bone behind the ear to test for hearing loss |
| Rinnea test | vibrating tuning fork is placed close to the ear to test hearing loss |
| If a person can’t hear the sound produced by the tuning fork through the air but can hear it when the tuning fork is placed on bone the problem | isn’t with the organ of corti or the auditory nerve this indicates a conduction problem and conductive hearing loss |
| If the subject can’t hear in either case the problem is | sensorineural and possibly conductive hearing loss |
| Cataract is a | progressive painless loss of vision due to the clouding of the lens of the eye |
| Cataracts can be treated by | surgically removing the lens and replacing it with an artificial lens |
| Age-related macular degeneration | disease of the eye in which the cells of the central portion of the retina degenerate eventually causing vision loss |
| Cataract | progressive loss of vision due to the clouding of the lens of the eye |
| Color blindness | genetic disorder that results in the inability to see certain colors |
| Conductive hearing loss | hearing loss caused by a lesion in the outer or middle ear that prevents the proper conduction of vibrations to the inner ear |
| Conjunctivitis | inflammation of the conjunctiva |
| Glaucoma | increased intraocular pressure |
| Myopia/hyperopia/astigmatism | various shapes of the eye that affect vision |
| Presbyopia | inability of the eye to accommodate for near and far vision that occurs with aging |
| Otitis externa | infection of the outer ear |
| Otitis media | infection of the middle ear |
| Sensorineural hearing loss | hearing loss caused by a problem with the organ of corti or the auditory nerve |
| Pathway of pain | unipolar neuron, spinal cord, medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, thalamus, parietal lobe |
| different pain pathway | unipolar neuron, spinal cord, reticular formation, parietal lobe, hypothalamus and limbic system |
| taste pathway | cranial nerve, medulla oblongata, hypothalamus/amygdala, pons, midbrain, thalamus, parietal lobe |
| taste medulla oblongata | |
| nose pathway | bipolar neuron, CN1, temporal lobe (general sensory area) either frontal lobe (association area) or hypothalamus and amygdala |
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