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CHAPTER 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Anatomy | is the study of structure |
| Physiology | is the study of function |
| These approaches are complementary and never entirely separable. | Anatomy & Physiology |
| Together, they form the bedrock of the health science. | Anatomy & Physiology |
| Physiology | lends meaning to anatomy, and, conversely, anatomy is what makes physiology possible. |
| Unity of form and function | is an important point to bear in mind as you study the body. |
| There are several ways to examine the structure of the human body. | Inspection |
| There are several ways to examine the structure of the human body. | Palpation |
| There are several ways to examine the structure of the human body. | Ausculation |
| There are several ways to examine the structure of the human body. | Percussion |
| Inspection | Simply looking at the body's appearance, as in performing a physical examination or making a clinical diagnosis from surface appearance. |
| Physical examinations also involve | touching and listening to the body. |
| Palpation | means feeling a structure with the hands, such as palpating a swollen lymph node or taking a pulse. |
| Auscultation | is listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as heart and lung sounds. |
| Percussion | the examiner taps on the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted sound for signs of abnormalities such as pocket of fluid, air, or scar tissue. |
| Dissection | But a deeper understanding of the body depends on ---- carefully cutting and separting tissues to reveal their relationships. |
| The very words ---- both mean "cutting apart"; until the nineteenth century, ----- was called "anatomizing" | dissection; anatomy; dissection |
| Cadaver | In many schools of health science, one of the first steps in training students is dissection of the ----, a dead human body. |
| Comparative Anatomy | Many insights into human structure are obtained from -----, the study of multiple species in order to examine similarities and differences and analyze evolutionary trends. |
| Anatomy students often begin by dissecting other ----- with which we share a common ancestry and many structural similarities | animals |
| Dissection | of course, is not the method of choice when studying a living person! |
| Dissection was once common to diagnose disorders through ----- opening the body and taking a look inside to see what was wrong and what could be done to it. | exploratory surgery |
| Any breach of the body cavities is risky, however, and most exploratory surgery has now been replaced by ---- techniques - methods of viewing the inside of the body without surgery,. | Medical imaging |
| Radiology | The branch of medicine concerned with imaging is |
| Gross anatomy | Structure that can be seen with the naked eye - whether by surface observation, radiology, or dissection |
| Ultimately, the functions of the body result from its ----- | individual cells |
| Histology (microscopic anatomy) | We usually take tissue specimens, thinly slice and stain them, and observe them under the microscope to see individual cells. |
| Histopathology | is the microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease. |
| Cytology | is the study of the structure and function of individual cells. |
| Ultrastructure | refers to the fine detail, down to the molecular level, revealed by the electron microscope |
| Physiology | uses the methods of experimental science discussed later. |
| Neurophysiology | (physiology of the nervous system) |
| Endrocrinology | (physiology of hormones) |
| Pathophysilogy | (mechanisms of disease) |
| Comparative physiology | Partly because of limitations on experimentation with humans, much of what we know about bodily function has been gained through ----, the study of how different species have solved problems of life such as water balance, respiration, and reproduction. |
| Comparative physiology | is also the basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures. |
| Cardiac surgeon | may learn animal surgery before practicing on humans |
| Animal research | vaccine cannot be used on human subjects until it has been demonstrated through animal research that it confers significant beliefs without unacceptable risks. |
| What is the difference between anatomy and physiology? | Anatomy focuses on the body's structure, akin to understanding the blueprint of a building. Physiology, on the other hand, examines how these structures function, similar to how a building operates with its electrical and plumbing systems. |
| How do these sciences support each other? (anatomy & physiology) | Together, they provide a comprehensive understanding of the human body, with anatomy offering the "what" and physiology explaining the "how." This unity is essential in health sciences, as understanding form aids in grasping function, and vice versa. |
| Listening to a patient for a heart murmur | Auscultation |
| The microscopic structure of the liver | Histology |
| Liver tissue for hepatitis signs is also studied ----- | Histology |
| Learning cadaver blood vessels involves ---- | dissection |
| A breast self-exam is a tactile method for detecting changes. | tactile method |
| Medicine has progressed far more in the last 50 years in the ----- before that, but the field didn't spring up overnight. | 2500 |
| As early as 3000 years ago, physicians in ---- treated patients with herbal drugs, salts, physical therapy, and faith healing. | Mesopotamia and Egypt |
| The "father of medicine", however is usually considered to be the Greek physician | Hippocrates (c. 460-375 BCE) |
| He and his followers established a code of ethics for physicians, -----, which is still recited in modern form by graduating physicians at some medical schools. | Hippocratic Oath |
| Urged physicians to stop attributing disease to the activities of gods and demons and to seek natural causes, which could afford the only rational basis for therapy. | Hippocrates |
| Aristotle (384-322 BCE) | was one of the first philosophers to write about anatomy and physiology |
| He believed that diseases and other natural events could have either supernatural causes, which he called theologi, or natural ones, or natural ones, which he called phyisci and physilogi . | Aristotle (384-322 BCE) |
| We derive such terms as physician and physiology from | Phisiology |
| Until the ninteenth century, physicians called | "doctors of physic" |
| On the Parts of Animals | In his anatomy book, -----, Aristotle aimed to identify unifying themes in nature. |
| Aristotle (384-322 BCE) | He argued that complex structures are built from a smaller variety of a simple components |
| ----- of ancient Greece and Rome were largely limited in their practice to gynecology and obstetrics. | Female physicians |
| Metrodora (c. 200 BCE) | Among them, Greek physician ---- was perhaps the first woman to publish a medical textbook, the two-volume gynecological treatise On the Diseases and Cures of Women. |
| It was widely translated and used in ancient Greece and Rome and as late as 1597 CE in Europe | On the Diseases and Cures of Women |
| Cladius Galen (129-c. 200) | physician to the Roman gladiators, wrote the most influential medical textbook of the ancient era - a book worshipped to excess by medical professors for centuries to follow. |
| ----- dissection was banned in Galen's time because of some horrid excesses that preceded him, including public dissection of living enslaved and imprisoned individuals. | Cadaver |
| Aside from what he could learn by treating gladiators' wounds, --- was therefore limited to dissecting pigs,monkeys, and other animals | Galen |
| Because he wasn't permitted to dissect cadavers, he had to guess at much of human anatomy and made some incorrect deductions from animal dissections. | Cadaver |
| He described the human liver, for example, as having five fingerlike lobes because that's what he had seen in baboons. | Galen |
| Saw science as method of discovery, not a body of fact to be taken on faith. | Galen |
| He warned even his own books could be wrong and advised his followers to trust their own observations more than any book. Unfortunately, his advice wasn't needed. | Galen |
| For nearly 1,500 years, medical professors dogmatically taught what they read in -----, seldom daring to question the authority of these "ancient masters". | Aristotle and Galen |
| In the ----, the state of medical science varied greatly from one religious culture to another. | Middle Ages |
| Science was repressed in the ------ of Europe up until about the sixteenth century, although some of the most famous medical schools of Europe were founded during this era. | Christian Culture |
| Their professors, however, taught medicine properly as dogmatic commentary on Galen or Aristotle, not a field of original research. | Christian Culture |
| ----- were crude representations of the body intended more to decorate a page than to depict the body realistically. | Medieval medical illustrations |
| Some were ----- that showed which sign of the zodiac was thought to influence each organ of the body. | astrological charts |
| From such pseudoscience came from the word "----", Italian for "influence" | Influenza |
| Free inquiry was less inhibited in --- culture during the time. | Jewish and Muslim |
| Jewish physicians were the most esteemed Practioners of their art-and none more famous than Moses ben Mammon (1135-1405), known christiandom as | Maimondes |
| Born in Spain, he fled to Egypt at age 24 to escape antisemitic persecution. | Maimondes |
| There he served the rest of his life as physician to the court of the sulton | Saladin |
| A highly admired rabbi, ----- wrote voluminously on Jewish law and theology, but also wrote 10 influential medical books and numerous treatises on specific diseases. | Maimondes |
| Among muslims, probably the most high regarded medical scholar was Ibin Sina (980-1037), known in the West as ----, or "Galen of Islam". | Avicenna |
| He studied Galen and Aristotle, combined their findings with original discoveries, and questioned authority when the evidence demanded it. | Avicenna |
| Medicine in the --- soon became superior to European medicine. | Mideast |
| Avicenna's textbook, -----, was a leading authority in Europeon medical schools for over 500 years. | The Canon of Medicine |
| --- medicine had little influence on Western thought and practice until relatively recently; the medical arts evolved in China quite independently of European medicine. | Chinese |
| Modern western medicine began around the sixteenth century in the innovative minds of such people as the anatomist ---- and the physiooligst; | Andreas Vesalius; William Harvey |
| Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) | taught anatomy in Italy |
| In his time, Catholic Church relaxed its prohibition against cadaver dissection, in part to allow autopsies of suspicious death | Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) |
| Furthermore, the ---- created an environment more friendly to innovative scholarship. | Italian Renaissance |
| Dissection gradually found its way throughout | Europe |
| Dissection | was an unpleasant business, however, and most professors considered it beneath their dignity. |
| In those days before refrigeration, or embalming, the odor from the ---- was unbearable. | cadaver |
| Dissection | gradually found its way into the training of medical students through Europe. |
| It was an unpleasant business | however, and most professors considered it beneath their dignity |
| In those days before refrigeration or embalming, the odor from the decaying --- was unbearable. | cadaver |
| were a racing against decay | Dissections |
| Bleary | medical students fought the urge to vomit, lest they incur the wrath of an overbearing professor. |
| barber-surgeon | Professors typically sat in an elevated chair, the cathedra, reading dryly in Latin from Galen or Aristotle while a lower-ranking -----, removed putefying organs from the cadaver and held them up for the students to see. |
| Barbering and surgery | were considered to be "kindered arts of the knife"; today barber poles dates from the era, their red and white stripes, symbolizing blood and bandages. |
| Vesalius | broke with tradition by coming down from the cathedra and doing the dissections himself. |
| Vesalius | was quick to point out that much of the anatomy in Galen's books was wrong, and he was the first to publish accurate illustrations for teaching anatomy. |
| When others began to plagiarize them, Vesalius published the first atlas of anatomy, -------, in 1543. | De Humani Corporis Francis (On the Structure of the Human Body) |
| This book began a rich tradition of medical illustration that has been handed down to us through such milestones as ----- and the vividly illustrated atlases and textbooks today. | Gray's Anatomy (1856) |
| Preceded physiology and was a necessary foundation for it. | Anatomy |
| William Harvey | What Vesalius was to anatomy, the Englishman ---- was to physiology. |
| is remembered especially for his studies of blood circulation and a little book he published in 1628, known by its abbreviated title De Motu Cordis (On the Motion of the Heart). | William Harvey |
| ------- were the first Western scientists to realize that blood must circulate continuously around the body, from the heart to the other organs and back to the heart again. | William Harvey and Micheal Servetus (1511-53) |
| This flew in the face of ---- belief that the liver converted food to blood, the heart pumped blood through the veins to all other organs, and those organs consumed it. | Galen |
| Physicians wedded to the ideas of ---- ridiculed Harvey for his theory though we know he was correct. | Galen |
| Despite persecution and setbacks, ----- lived to ripe old age, served as physician to the Kings of England, and later did important work in embryology. | William Harvey |
| Most importantly, ---- contributions represent the birth of experimental physiology - the method that generated most of the information in the book. | William Harvey |
| Modern medicine also owes an enormous debt to those who extended the vision of ---- to the cellular level. | biologists |
| In 1609, ---- patented the compound microscope as a by-product of his work with telescopes. | Gallelio (1564-1642) |
| This was essentially a telescope for viewing very tiny objects - a tube with a lens at each end: an ---- near the specimen | objective lenses |
| This was essentially a telescope for viewing very tiny objects - a tube with a lens at each end: near the viewer's eye, which magnified the first image still further. | occular lens (eyepiece) |
| ---- never thought, however, to use it on biological material. | Galileo |
| The first to study cells with a compound microscope was Italian physician-biologist ---- who was among the first to observe blood cells and capillaries as well as capillary blood flow. | Marcello Malphigi (1628-94) |
| He published his descriptions in 1661 and is remembered as the father of histology (microscopic anatomy). | Marcello Malphigi (1628-94) |
| Englishman ----, who designed specific instruments of various kinds, improved the optics, and invented several of the helpful features found in microscopes today - a stage to hold the specimen, an illuminator, and coarse and fine focus controls. | Robert Hooke |
| His microscopes magnified only about 30 times, but with them, he was the first to see and name cells. | Robert Hooke |
| In 1663, he observed thin shavings of cork and observed that they "consisted of a great many little boxes", which he called ----, after the cubicles of a monestary. | cellulae (little cells) |
| He later observed living cells "filled with juices" | Robert Hooke |
| became particularly interested in microscopic examination of such material, as insects, plant tissues, and animal parts. | Robert Hooke |
| Robert Hooke published the first comprehensive book of microscopy, ---- in 1665 | Microphagia |
| Hooke's Compound Microscope | The compound microscope had a lens at each end of a tubular body. |
| Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) | a Dutch textile merchant, invented a simple (single-lens) microscope, originally for the purpose of examining the weave of fabrics. |
| Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) | His microscope was a beadlike lens mounted in a metal plate equipped with a moveable specimen clip. |
| Even though his microscopes were simpler than ----, they achieved much greater useful magnification (up to 200x) owing to Leeunwenhoek's superior lens-making technique. | Robert Hooke |
| Out of curiosity, he examined a drop of lake water and was astonished to find a variety of microorganisms - "little animalcules," he called them, "very prettily a-swimming". | Robert Hooke |
| He went on to observe practically everything he could get his hands on, including blood cells, blood capillaries, sperm, muscular tissue, and bacteria from tooth scrapings. | Robert Hooke |
| Leeunwenoek | began submitting his observations to the Royal Society of London 1673 |
| He was praised at first, and his observations were eagerly read by scientists, but enthusiasm for the microscope didn't last. | Leeunwenoek |
| By the end of the seventeenth century, it was treated as a mere toy for the upperclass, as amusing and meaningless as the kalaiedescope. | Telescope |
| had even become the brunt of satire. | Leeunwenhoek and Hooke |
| But probably no one in history had looked at nature in such revolutionary way | Leeunwenhoek and Hooke |
| By taking biology to the cellular level, the two men had laid an entirely new foundation for the modern medicine to follow centuries later | Leeunwenhoek and Hooke |
| The ------ microscopes produced poor images and with blurry edges (spherical aberration) rainbowlike distortions (chromatic aberration). | Leeunwenhoek and Hooke |
| These problems had to be solved before the microscope could be widely used as a biological tool. | blurry edges (spherical aberration) rainbowlike distortions (chromatic aberration) |
| In the nineteenth century, ----- greatly improved the compound microscope, adding the condenser and developing superior optics. | German inventors |
| With -----, biologists began eagerly examining a wider variety of specimens. | improved microscopes |
| By 1839, botanist --- and zoologist ---- concluded that all organisms were composed of cells. | Matthias Schleiden (1804-81) and Thedor Schwann (1810-82) |
| Organisms were composed of cells | Although it took another century for this idea to be generally accepted, it became the first tenet of the cell theory, added by later biologists. |
| Cell Theory | was perhaps the most important breakthrough in biomedical history; all functions of the body are now interpreted as effects of cellular activity. |
| Although the philosophical foundation for modern medicine was largely established by the time of ------, clinical practice was still at a dismal state. | Leeuwenhoek, Hooke, and Harvey |
| Few doctors attended ----- or received any formal education in basic science or human anatomy. | medical school |
| tended to be ignorant, ineffective, and pompous | Physicians |
| Their practice was heavily based on expelling ---- from the body by bleeding their patients or inducing vomiting, sweating, or diarrhea | imaginary toxins |
| They performed operations with filthy hands and instruments, spreading lethal infections from one patient to another and refusing, in their vanity, to believe that they themselves were the carriers of disease. | Physicians |
| Countless women died of infections acquired during childbirths from their | obstericians |
| Fractured limbs often became ---- and had to be amputated, and there was no anesthesia to lessen the pain. | gangrenous |
| ---- was still widely attributed to demons and witches, and many people felt they would be interfering with God's will if they tried to treat it. | Disease |
| This short history brings us only to the threshold of modern ------; it stops short of such momentous discoveries as the germ theory of disease, the mechanisms of heredity, and the structure of DNA. | biomedical science |
| In the ----, basic biology and biochemistry yielded a much deeper understanding of how the body works. | twentieth century |
| twentieth century | Advances in medical imaging enhanced our diagnostic ability and life-support strategies. We witnessed monumental developments in chemotherapy, immunization, anesthesia, surgery, organ transplants, and human genetics. |
| By the close of the twentieth century, we had discovered the chemical “------" of every human gene and begun attempting gene therapy to treat children born with diseases recently considered incurable. | base sequence |
| As future historians look back on our present era, they may exult (talk about excitedly) about the ------ in which you are now living. | Genetic Revolution |
| In what way did the followers of Galen disregard his advice? | Galen advised against blind adherence to authority, encouraging critical thinking and observation. His followers, however, often revered his work without question, stifling progress. |
| How does Galen's advice apply apply to you and this book? | For you, this means engaging with the material actively, questioning assumptions, and seeking evidence. |
| Vesalius revolutionized medical education by emphasizing direct observation and dissection, akin to learning to play an instrument by practicing rather than just reading music. | Describe two ways in which Vesalius improved medical education and set standards that remain relevant today. |
| He published "De humani corporis fabrica," a detailed anatomical text with precise illustrations, setting a new standard for accuracy and teaching methods. | Describe two ways in which Vesalius improved medical education and set standards that remain relevant today. |
| How is our concept of human form and function today affected by inventors from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries? | Inventors from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries revolutionized our understanding of human anatomy and physiology by replacing superstitions with scientific inquiry. |
| When we describe a ----- or way of thinking as scientific, we mean it's based on assumptions and methods that yield reliable, objective, testable information about nature (fig. 1.3). | research method |
| The assumptions of ---are ideas that have proven fruitful in the past—for example, the idea that natural phenomena have natural causes, that nature is predictable and understandable, and that humans are a product of nature and subject to its laws. | science |
| Scientific method is highly variable | It refers not to formulaic observational procedures, but to certain habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, and honest analysis of one's observations and conclusions. |
| Science ----- habits of inquiry meant to arrive at truthful representations of nature—objective conclusions that will stand up to efforts to find fault with them. | cultivates |
| Its conclusions are not infallible, but are always open to correction and refinement when new evidence demands it. | Science |
| The ---- is a process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them. | inductive method |
| What we know of anatomy is a product of the | inductive method. |
| We describe the normal structure of the body based on ---- | observations of many bodies |
| This raises the issue of what is considered proof in science. | Inductive Method |
| Inductive Method | We can never prove a claim beyond all possible refutation. |
| We can, however, consider a --- as proven beyond reasonable doubt if it was arrived at by reliable methods of observation, tested and confirmed repeatedly, and not falsified by any credible | statement |
| In science, all truth is tentative | ; there's no room for dogma |
| We must always be prepared to abandon ----- if tomorrow's facts disprove it. | yesterday's truth |
| Most physiological knowledge was obtained by the | hypothetico-deductive method |
| An investigator begins by asking a question and formulating a --- an educated speculation or possible answer to the question. | hypothesis |
| A good --- must be (1) consistent with what is already known and (2) capable of of being tested and possibly falsified by evidence. | hypothesis |
| Falsfibility | means that if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong |
| The --- thought the the gods or invisible demons caused epilepsy | ancients |
| Today ---- are attributed to bursts of abnormal electrical activity in nerve cells of the brain. | epileptic seizures |
| The claim that epilepsy is caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain is falsifiable because it can be tested and potentially disproven with evidence, such as EEG readings showing electrical patterns during seizures. | EEG |
| Hypothesis | The purpose of a ---- is to suggest a method for answering a question. |
| The purpose of a --- is to suggest a method for answering a question. | hypothesis |
| From the ----, a researcher makes a deduction, typically in the form of an “if-then" prediction: If my hypothesis on epilepsy is correct and I record the brain waves of patients during seizures, then I should observe abnormal bursts of activity. | hypothesis |
| A properly conducted experiment yields ---- that either support a hypothesis or require the scientist to modify or abandon it, formulate a better hypothesis, and test that one. | observations |
| Hypothesis | testing operates in cycles of conjecture and disproof until one is found that is supported by the evidence. |
| Doing an experiment properly involves several important considerations. | What shall I measure and how can I measure it? |
| Doing an experiment properly involves several important considerations. | What effects should I watch for and which ones should I ignore? |
| Doing an experiment properly involves several important considerations. | How can I be sure my results are due to the variables that I manipulate and not due to something else? |
| Doing an experiment properly involves several important considerations. | When working on human subjects, how can I prevent the subject's expectations or state of mind from influencing the results? |
| Doing an experiment properly involves several important considerations. | How can I eliminate my own biases and be sure that even the most skeptical critics will have as much confidence in my conclusions as I do? |
| Several elements of experimental design address these important considerations: | Controls |
| Several elements of experimental design address these important considerations: | Psychosomatic effects |
| Several elements of experimental design address these important considerations: | Experimenter bias |
| Several elements of experimental design address these important considerations: | Statistical testing |
| Sample Size | The number of subjects (animals or people) used in a study is the sample size. An adequate sample size controls for chance events and individual variations in response and thus enables us to place more confidence in the outcome. |
| Sample Size | For example, would you rather trust your health to a drug that was tested on 5,000? Why? |
| Controls | Biomedical experiments require comparison between treated and untreated individuals so that we can judge whether the treatment has any effect. |
| A ---- consists of subjects that are as much like the treatment group as possible except with respect to the variable being tested. | control group |
| In one study, volunteers with high cholesterol were each given 800 mg of garlic powder daily for 4 months and exhibited an average 12% reduction in cholesterol. Was this a significant reduction, and was it due to the garlic? | It's impossible to say without comparison to a control group of similar people who received no treatment. In this study, the control group averaged only a 3% reduction in cholesterol, so garlic seems to have made a difference |
| Psychosomatic effects | Psychosomatic effects (effects of the subject's state of mind on his or her physiology) can have an undesirable effect on experimental results if we don't control for them. |
| In drug research, it is therefore customary to give the control group a ---- (pla-SEE-bo)—a substance with no significant physiological effect on the body. | placebo |
| If we were testing a drug, for example, we could give the - group the drug and the - group identical sugar tablets. Neither group must know. If it doesn't work for either, then it doesn't work. | treatment; control |
| Experimenter bias | In the competitive, high-stakes world of medical research, experimenters may want certain results so much that their biases, even subconscious ones, can affect their interpretation of the data. |
| double-blind method | On way to control the competitive, high-stakes world of medical research, experimenters may want certain results so much that their biases, even subconscious ones, can affect their interpretation of the data. |
| double-blind method | In this procedure, neither the subject to whom a treatment is given nor the person giving it and recording the results knows whether that subject is receiving the experimental treatment or the placebo. |
| double-blind method | A researcher may prepare identical-looking tablets, some with the drug and some with placebo; label them with code numbers; and distribute them to participating physicians. |
| double-blind method | The physicians themselves don't know whether they're administering drug or placebo, so they can't give the subjects even accidental hints of which substance they're taking. |
| double-blind method | When the data are collected, the researcher can correlate them with the composition of the tablets and determine whether the drug had more effect than the placebo. |
| Statistical testing | If you tossed a coin 100 times, you would expect it to come up about 50 heads and 50 tails. If it actually came up 48:52, you would probably attribute this to random error rather than bias in the coin. |
| Statistical testing | But what if it came up 40:60? At what point would you begin to suspect bias? |
| Statistical testing | This type of problem is faced routinely in research-how great a difference must there be between control and treatment groups before we feel confident that it was due to the treatment and not merely random variation? |
| Statistical testing | What if a treatment group exhibited a 12% reduction in cholesterol level and the placebo group a 10% reduction? Would this be enough to conclude that the treatment was effective? |
| Statistical testing | Scientists are well grounded in statistical tests that can be applied to the data—the chi- square test, the t test, and analysis of variance, for example. |
| Statistical testing | A typical outcome of a statistical test may be expressed, "We can be 99.5% sure that the difference between group A and group B was due to the experimental treatment and not to random variation." truth, but in statements of probability. |
| Statistical testing | Science is grounded not in statements of absolute truth, but in statements of probability |
| Peer Review - When a scientist applies for funds to support a research project or submits results for publication, the application or manuscript is submitted to peer review—a critical evaluation by other experts in that field. | Peer Review |
| Even after a report is published, if the results are important or unconventional, other scientists may attempt to reproduce them to see if the author was correct. | Peer Review |
| At every stage from planning to postpublication, scientists are therefore subject to intense scrutiny by their colleagues. | Peer Review |
| Peer review is one mechanism for ensuring honesty, objectivity, and quality in science. | Peer Review |
| Facts, Laws, and Theories | The most important product of scientific research is understanding how nature works-whether it be the nature of a pond to an ecologist or the nature of a liver cell to a physiologist. |
| A scientific fact is information that can be independently verified by any trained person—for example, the fact that an iron deficiency leads to -----. | anemia |
| A law of nature | is a generalization about the predictable ways in which matter and energy behave. |
| It is the result of ---- based on repeated, confirmed observations. | inductive reasoning |
| Some laws are expressed as concise verbal statements, such as the law of complementary base pairing | : In the double helix of DNA, a chemical base called adenine always pairs with one called thymine, and a base called guanine always pairs with cytosine. |
| Other laws are expressed as mathematical formulae, such as -----, used in respiratory physiology: V ∞ 1/P. | Boyle's law |
| Under specified conditions, the volume of a gas (V) is inversely proportional to its pressure (P)—that is, | V ∞ 1/P. |
| theories | is an explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses. |
| theories | Some ---- have names, such as the cell theory, the fluid-mosaic theory of cell membranes, and the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. |
| theories | Most, however, remain unnamed. The purpose of a ---- is not only to concisely summarize what we already know but, moreover, to suggest directions for further study and to help predict what the findings should be if the ---- is correct. |
| ---- and ---- mean something different in science than they do to most people. | law; theory |
| A ---- of nature, however, is a description; --- don't govern the universe-they describe it. | law |
| Laypeople | tend to use the word theory for what a scientist would call a hypothesis-for example, “I have a theory why my car won't start." |
| significant confusion | The difference in meaning causes ---- when it leads people to think that a scientific theory (such as the theory of evolution) is merely a guess or conjecture, instead of recognizing it as a summary of conclusions drawn from a large body of observed facts |
| The concepts of gravity and electrons are ---- , too, but this doesn't mean they're merely speculations | theories |
| The inductive method involves gathering numerous observations to form generalizations and predictions. | However, these truths remain flexible, ready to change if new observations contradict them. |
| Describe some sources of potential bias in biomedical research. What are some ways of minimizing such bias? | Potential biases in biomedical research can stem from funding sources, researcher expectations, and sample selection. Minimizing bias involves using randomized controlled trials, blinding, and diverse samples. |
| Describe some sources of potential bias in biomedical research. What are some ways of minimizing such bias? | Peer review and replication of studies further ensure reliability and objectivity, enhancing the credibility and accuracy of research findings. |
| Is there more information in an individual scientific fact or in a theory? Explain | A scientific theory encompasses more information than an individual fact, as it synthesizes numerous facts and observations into a comprehensive explanation. |
| Is there more information in an individual scientific fact or in a theory? Explain | For instance, the theory of evolution integrates countless biological observations, offering a cohesive framework rather than isolated facts. |
| If any two theories have the broadest implications for understanding the human body, they are probably ---- | the cell theory and the theory of natural selection HEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEERE |
| No understanding of human form and function is complete without an understanding of our -----, of how natural selection adapted the body to its ancestral habitat. | evolutionary history |
| As an explanation of how species originate and change through time, natural selection was the brainchild of ---- (1809-82)— certainly the most influential biologist who ever lived. | Charles Darwin |
| His book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), has been called "the book that shook the world." | Charles Darwin |
| In presenting the first well-supported theory of how ---- works, it not only caused the restructuring of all of biology but also profoundly changed the prevailing view of our origin, nature, and place in the universe. | evolution |
| In ----, Darwin directly addressed the issue of human evolution and emphasized features of anatomy and behavior that reveal our relationship to other animals. | The Descent of Man (1871) |
| Evolution | simply means change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms. |
| Examples include the evolution of bacterial resistance to ----, the appearance of new strains of the flu virus, and the emergence of new species of organisms. | antibiotics |
| Evolution | simply means change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms. |
| Examples include the --- of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, the appearance of new strains of the flu virus, and the emergence of new species of organisms. | Evolution |
| Evolution works largely through the principle of --- which states essentially this | natural selection |
| Some individuals within a species have hereditary advantages over their competitors-for example, better camouflage, disease resistance, or ability to attract mates-that enable them to produce more offspring. | natural selection |
| They pass these advantages on to their offspring, and such characteristics therefore become more and more common in successive generations. | natural selection |
| This brings about the genetic change in a population that constitutes evolution | natural selection |
| Natural forces that promote the reproductive success of some individuals more than others are called ---- | selection pressures |
| They include such things as climate, predators, disease, competition, and food. | selection pressures |
| Adaptations | are features of anatomy, physiology, and behavior that evolve in response to these selection pressures and enable an organism to cope with the challenges of its environment. |
| ---- could scarcely have predicted the overwhelming mass of genetic, molecular, fossil, and other evidence of human evolution that would accumulate in the twentieth century and further substantiate his theory. | Darwin |
| Modern methods | in molecular genetics, for example, reveal less difference between the DNA of chimpanzees and humans than there is between chimpanzees and gorillas. |
| Darwin | That is, a chimpanzee's closest living relative is not the gorilla—it is us, Homo sapiens. |
| Several aspects of our ---- make little sense without an awareness that the human body has a history | anatomy |
| Our ---- to other species is also important in choosing animals for biomedical research. | evolutionary relationship |
| If there were no issues of cost, availability, or ethics, we might test drugs on our close living relatives, the -----, before approving them for human use. | chimpanzees |
| Their genetics, anatomy, and physiology are most similar to ours, and their reactions to drugs therefore afford the best prediction of how the human body would react. | chimpanzees |
| On the other hand, if we had no kinship with any other species, the selection of a ---- would be arbitrary; we might as well use frogs or snails. In reality, we compromise. | test species |
| Rats and mice | are used extensively for research because they are fellow mammals with a physiology similar to ours, but they present fewer of the aforementioned issues than chimpanzees or other mammals do. |
| An animal species or strain selected for research on a particular problem is called a model-for example, a mouse model for --- | acute lymphocytic leukemia |
| One of the classic lines of evidence for evolution, debated even before Darwin was born, is ---- | vestigial organs |
| These structures are the remnants of organs that apparently were better developed and more functional in the ancestors of a species. | vestigal organs |
| They now serve little or no purpose or, in some cases, have been converted to new functions. | vestigal organs |
| Our bodies, for example, are covered with millions of hairs, each equipped with a useless little | arrector muscle |
| In other mammals, these muscles fluff the hair and conserve heat. | In humans, they merely produce goose bumps. |
| other mammals, they move the ears to receive sounds better or to flick off flies and other pests, but most people can't contract them at all. | As Darwin said, it makes no sense that humans would have such structures were it not for the fact that we came from ancestors in which they were functional. |
| We belong to an order of mammals called the ----, which also includes the monkeys and apes. | Primates |
| Some of our anatomical and physiological features can be traced to the earliest ----, which descended from certain squirrel-size, insect-eating, African mammals that took up life in the trees 55 to 60 million years ago. | Primates |
| This ---- habitat probably afforded greater safety from predators, less competition, and a rich food supply of leaves, fruit, insects, and lizards. | arboreal (treetop) |
| But the forest canopy is a challenging world, with dim and dappled sunlight, swaying branches, shifting shadows, and prey darting about in the dense foliage. | arboreal (treetop) |
| Any new feature that enabled arboreal animals to move about more easily in the treetops would have been strongly favored by ---- | natural selection |
| Thus, the shoulder became more mobile and enabled primates to reach out in any direction (even overhead, which few other mammals can do). | natural selection |
| The thumbs became fully -----they could cross the palm to touch the fingertips-and enabled primates to hold small objects and manipulate them more precisely than other mammals could. | opposable |
| made the hands prehensile1o-able to grasp objects by encircling them with the thumb and fingers (fig. 1.4). | Opposable thumbs |
| The --- is so important that it receives highest priority in the repair of hand injuries. If the thumb can be saved, the hand can be reasonably functional; if it is lost, hand functions are severely diminished. | thumb |
| Human Adaptations Shared with Other Primates | Some major aspects of primate evolution are the opposable thumb, prehensile hand, forward-facing eyes, and stereoscopic vision. In humans, the hand became refined for increasingly sophisticated manipulation of objects. |
| The eyes of primates moved to a more forward-facing position, which allowed for stereoscopic vision | (depth perception) |
| This adaptation provided better hand- eye coordination in catching and manipulating prey, with the added advantage of making it easier to judge distances accurately in leaping from tree to tree. | stereoscopic vision |
| ----, rare among mammals, is also a primate hallmark. | Color vision |
| Color vision | Primates eat mainly fruits and leaves |
| The ability to distinguish subtle shades of orange and red enables them to distinguish ripe, sugary fruits from unripe ones | Color vision |
| Distinguishing subtle shades of green helps them to differentiate between tender young leaves and tough, more toxic older foilage. | Color vision |
| mainly eat mainly fruit and leaves | Primates |
| The ----- to distinguish subtle shades of orange and red enables them to distinguish ripe, sugary fruits from unripe ones. | ability |
| Distinguishing subtle shades of green helps them to differentiate between tender young leaves and tough, more ---- | toxic older foliage. |
| Various ---- ripen at different times and in widely separated places in the tropical forest. | fruits |
| This requires a good --- of what will be available, when, and how to get there. | memory |
| Larger brains | might have evolved in response to the challenge of efficient food finding and, in turn, laid the foundation for more sophisticated social organization. |
| None of this is meant to imply that humans evolved from ---- —a common misconception about evolution that no biologist believes. | monkeys |
| Monkeys, apes, and humans do, however, share ---- | common ancestors |
| Our relationship is not like parent and child, but more like cousins who have the same grandparents. | Monkeys |
| Observations of monkeys and apes provide insight into how primates adapt to the ---- and therefore how certain human adaptations probably originated. | arboreal habitat |
| About 4 to 5 million years ago, parts of Africa became hotter and drier, and much of the forest was replaced by | savanna (grassland) |
| Some primates adapted to living on the savanna, but this was a dangerous place with more predators and less protection. | savanna (grassland) |
| Just as ---- stand briefly on their hind legs to look around for danger, so would these early ground dwellers. | squirrels and monkeys |
| Being able to ----not only helps an animal stay alert, but also frees the forelimbs for purposes other than walking. | stand up |
| Chimpanzees sometimes --- to carry food, infants, or weapons (sticks and rocks), and it is reasonable to suppose that our early ancestors did so too. | walk upright |
| These advantages are so great that they favored skeletal modifications that made bipedalism—standing and walking on two legs—easier. | Chimpanzees sometimes --- to carry food, infants, or weapons (sticks and rocks), and it is reasonable to suppose that our early ancestors did so too. |
| Fossil evidence indicates that bipedalism was firmly established more than ---- | 4 million years ago |
| The anatomy of the human pelvis, femur, knee, great toe, foot arches, spinal column, skull, arms, and many muscles became adapted for ------, as did many aspects of human family life and society. | bipedal locomotion |
| As the skeleton and muscles became adapted for bipedalism, brain volume increased dramatically, from 400 mL around 4 million years ago to an average of ---- | 1,350 mL today |
| It must have become increasingly difficult for a fully developed, large-brained infant to pass through the ----- at birth | mother's pelvic outlet |
| This may explain why humans are born in a relatively immature, helpless state compared with other mammals, before their nervous systems have matured and the bones of the skull have fused. | large-brained infant |
| The helplessness of ----and their extended dependence on parental care may help to explain why humans have such exceptionally strong family ties. | human young |
| Most of the oldest bipedal primates are classified in the genus | Australopithecus (aus-TRAL-oh-PITH-eh-cus). |
| About -----, hominids appeared with taller stature, greater brain volumes, simple stone tools, and probably articulate speech. | 2.5 million years ago |
| These are the earliest members of the genus Homo. | hominids |
| By at least 1.8 million years ago, ---- migrated from Africa to parts of Asia. | Homo erectus |
| Anatomically modern -----, our own species, originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago and is the only surviving hominid species. | Homo sapiens |
| This brief account barely begins to explain how human anatomy, physiology, and behavior have been shaped by ancient selection pressures. | 200,000 years ago in Africa |
| Evolution | is the basis for comparative anatomy and physiology, which have been so fruitful for the understanding of human biology |
| If we weren't related to any other species, those sciences would be pointless. | comparative anatomy and physiology |
| The emerging science of ----- analyzes how human disease and dysfunctions can be traced to differences between the artificial environment in which we now live, and the prehistoric environment to which Homo sapiens was biologically adapted. | evolutionary medicine |
| For example, we can relate sleep and mood disorders to artificial lighting and night-shift work, and the rise of asthma to our modern obsession with -----. | sanitation |
| Other examples in this book will relate ---- to obesity, diabetes, low-back pain, skin cancer, and other health issues. | evolution |
| Define adaptation and selection pressure | Adaptation involves changes in organisms that enhance survival and reproduction in specific environments. Selection pressure refers to environmental factors that influence these changes by favoring certain traits. |
| Why is adaptation and selection pressure important in understanding human anatomy and physiology? | These concepts are crucial for understanding human anatomy and physiology as they explain how traits evolved in response to environmental challenges, shaping our biological functions and health. |
| Select any two human characteristics and explain how they might have originated in primate adaptations to an arboreal habitat | Human characteristics like opposable thumbs and stereoscopic vision likely originated from primate adaptations to arboreal habitats. |
| Select any two human characteristics and explain how they might have originated in primate adaptations to an arboreal habitat | Opposable thumbs allowed primates to grasp branches and manipulate objects, enhancing survival in trees. |
| Select any two human characteristics and explain how they might have originated in primate adaptations to an arboreal habitat | Stereoscopic vision improved depth perception, aiding in navigation and prey capture in complex forest environments. |
| Select two other human characteristics and explain how they might have resulted from later adaptation to a grassland habitat | The shift to a grassland habitat likely influenced the development of bipedalism and enhanced vision in humans. |
| Select two other human characteristics and explain how they might have resulted from later adaptation to a grassland habitat | . Walking upright freed hands for tool use and carrying objects, while a taller stance provided a better vantage point for spotting predators and prey. |
| The organism | is composed of organ systems |
| Organ systems | are composed of organs |
| Organs | are composed of tissues |
| Tissues | are composed of cells |
| Cells | are composed partly of organelles |
| Organelles | are composed of molecules |
| Molecules | are composed of atoms |
| --- -> Molecule -> Macromolecule -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism | Atom |
| Atom -> ---- -> Macromolecule -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism | Molecule |
| Atom -> Molecule -> ---- -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism | Macromolecule |
| Atom -> Molecule -> Macromolecule -> --- -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism | Organelle |
| Atom -> Molecule -> Macromolecule -> Organelle -> ----> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism | Cell |
| Atom -> Molecule -> Macromolecule -> Organelle -> Cell -> ---- -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism | Tissue |
| Atom -> Molecule -> Macromolecule -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> ----- -> Organ System -> Organism | Organ |
| Atom -> Molecule -> Macromolecule -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> ----- -> Organism | Organ System |
| Atom -> Molecule -> Macromolecule -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> ---- | Organism |
| The ---- is a single, complete individual. | Organism |
| An ------ is a group of organs with a unique collective function, such as circulation, respiration, or digestion. | Organ System |
| The human body has 11 organ systems, illustrated in atlas A immediately following this chapter | the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. |
| -----, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. | the integumentary |
| the integumentary, ----, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. | skeletal |
| the integumentary, skeletal, -----, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. | muscular |
| the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, -----, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. | nervous |
| the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, ----, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. | endocrine |
| the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, -----, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. | circulatory |
| the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, ----, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. | lymphoid |
| the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, ------, urinary, digestive, and reproductive systems. | respiratory |
| the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, -----, digestive, and reproductive systems. | urinary |
| the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, -----, and reproductive systems. | digestive |
| the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphoid, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and ----- systems | reproductive |
| Usually, the organs of one system are physically interconnected, such as the ---- , ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra, which compose the urinary system | kidneys |
| Usually, the organs of one system are physically interconnected, such as the kidneys , ----, urinary bladder, and urethra, which compose the urinary system | ureters |
| Usually, the organs of one system are physically interconnected, such as the kidneys , ureters, ---- and urethra, which compose the urinary system | urinary bladder |
| Usually, the organs of one system are physically interconnected, such as the kidneys , ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra, which compose the ----- | urinary system |
| An --- is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function. | organ |
| Organs | have definite anatomical boundaries and are visibly distinguishable from adjacent structures. |
| Most organs and higher levels of structure are within the domain of ----- | gross anatomy |
| However, there are organs within organs—the large organs visible to the naked eye often contain smaller organs visible only with the ----- | microscope |
| The ----, for example, is the body's largest organ. | skin |
| Included within skin are thousands of smaller organs | hair, nail, gland, nerve, and blood vessel |
| ----, nail, gland, nerve, and blood vessel: is an organ in itself | hair |
| hair, -----, gland, nerve, and blood vessel: is an organ in itself | nail |
| hair, nail, -----, nerve, and blood vessel: is an organ in itself | gland |
| hair, nail, gland, ----, and blood vessel: is an organ in itself | nerve |
| hair, nail, gland, nerve, and -----: is an organ in itself | blood vessel |
| A single ---- can belong to two organ systems | organ |
| Pancreas | belongs to both the endocrine and digestive systems |
| A ---- is a mass of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific functions | tissue |
| The body is only composed of only four primary classes of tissue | epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular tissue |
| Cells | are the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions; nothing simpler than a cell is considered alive |
| A cell is enclosed in a ----- composed of lipids and proteins | plasma membrane |
| Most of cells have one nucleus, an organelle that contains its | DNA |
| Cytology | the study of cells and organelles |
| Organelles | are microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions |
| Organelles | Examples include mitochondria, centrioles, and lysosomes |
| Organelles and other cellular components are composed are of | molecules |
| The largest molecules, such as proteins, such as proteins, fats, and are called | macromolecules |
| A molecule is a particle composed of at least two ---, which are the smallest particles with unique chemical identities | atoms |
| Reductionism | The theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simpler components is called |
| First espoused by, ----, this has proved to be a highly productive approach; indeed, it is essential to scientific thinking | Aristotle |
| Yet the ---- view is not the only way of understanding human life | reductionistic |
| Just as it would be very difficult to predict the workings of an - merely by looking at pile of its disassembled gears and levers, one could never predict the human personality from a complete knowledge of the circuitry of the brain or the --- | automobile transmission; genetic sequence |
| Holism | is the complementary theory that there are "emergent properties" of the whole organism that can't be predicted from the properties of its separate parts-human beings are more than the sum of their parts. |
| To be most effective, a health-care provider treats not merely a disease or an organ system, but a ---- | whole person |
| A ---- perceptions, emotional responses to life, and confidence in the nurse, therapist, or physician profoundly affect the outcome of treatment. | patient's |
| In fact, these psychological factors often play a greater role in a patient's recovery than the ---- administered. | physical treatments |
| In fact, these psychological factors often play a greater role in a patient's recovery than the ---- administered. | physical treatments |
| A quick look around any classroom is enough to show that no two ----- are exactly alike; on close inspection, even identical twins exhibit differences. | humans |
| Yet anatomy --- and textbooks can easily give the impression that everyone's internal anatomy is the same. | atlases |
| Books such as this one can teach you only the most common structure-the anatomy seen in about ---- or more of people | 70% |
| Someone who thinks that all human bodies are the same internally would make a very confused medical student or an | incompetent surgeon |
| Some people lack certain organs | For example, most of us have a palmaris longus muscle in the forearm and a plantaris muscle in the leg, but these are absent from others. |
| Most people have 24 ribs, but as many as ---- of us have 23, 26, or more. | 6% |
| Most of us have one spleen and two kidneys, but some have | two spleens or only one kidney |
| Most kidneys are supplied by a single renal artery and are drained by one ureter, but some | have two renal arteries or ureters (duplex ureters) |
| Variations in ----, physiology, and genetics reveal that not everyone can be simply classified as male or female important variation. | sexual anatomy |
| In most people, the spleen, pancreas, sigmoid colon, and most of the heart are on the ----, whereas the appendix, gallbladder, and most of the liver are on the ----. | left; right |
| The normal arrangement of these and other internal organs is called | situs solitus |
| About 1 in 8,000 people, however, is born with an abnormality called ------the organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities are reversed between right and left | situs inversus |
| A selective right-left reversal of the heart is called ----. | dextrocardia |
| In situs perversus, a single organ occupies an atypical position-for example, a kidney located low in the pelvic cavity instead of high in the ----- | abdominal cavity |
| Conditions such as ----- in the absence of complete situs inversus can cause serious medical problems | dextrocardia |
| Complete -----, however, usually causes no functional problems because all of the viscera, though reversed, maintain their normal relationships to one another. | situs inversus |
| is often discovered in the fetus by sonography, but many people remain unaware of their condition for decades until it is discovered by medical imaging, on physical examination, or in surgery. | Situs inversus |
| You can easily imagine the importance of such conditions in diagnosing appendicitis, performing gallbladder surgery, interpreting an X-ray, auscultating the heart valves, or recording an ------. | electrocardiogram |
| Conditions such as ---- in the absence of complete situs inversus can cause serious medical problems. | dextrocardia |
| Complete ----, however, usually causes no functional problems because all of the viscera, though reversed, maintain their normal relationships to one another. | situs inversus |
| is often discovered in the fetus by sonography, but many people remain unaware of their condition for decades until it is discovered by medical imaging, on physical examination, or in surgery. | Situs inversus |
| You can easily imagine the importance of such conditions in diagnosing appendicitis, performing gallbladder surgery, interpreting an X-ray, auscultating the heart valves, or recording an ----. | electrocardiogram |
| People who are allergic to aspirin or penicillin often wear MedicAlert bracelets or necklaces that note this fact in case they need emergency medical treatment and are unable to communicate. | A MedicAlert bracelet informs medical personnel of reversed organ positions, preventing misdiagnosis or incorrect procedures during surgeries or examinations, like appendicitis or heart assessments. |
| Why would it be important for a person with situs inversus (see Deeper Insight 1.2) to have this noted on a MedicAlert bracelet? | This ensures accurate and safe medical treatment, similar to how allergy alerts prevent harmful medication administration. |
| In the hierarchy of human structure, what is the level between organ system and tissue? | In the hierarchy of human structure, the level between an organ system and tissue is the organ. An organ consists of multiple tissue types working together, like a team in a relay race, each with a specific role |
| Between cell and molecule? | Between a cell and a molecule is the organelle, which functions like a factory, processing materials to sustain cell life. |
| How are tissues relevant to the definition of an organ? | Tissues are crucial in defining an organ because they are the building blocks that come together to form organs. |
| Why is reductionism a necessary but not sufficient point of view for fully understanding a patient's illness? | Reductionism breaks down complex systems into simpler parts, aiding in understanding specific components of a patient's illness. |
| Why should medical students observe multiple cadavers and not be satisifed to dissect only one? | Medical students should observe multiple cadavers to appreciate anatomical variation. |
| Simply put, there is no solid definition of life. | Defining life is elusive, like trying to define jazz or poetry. We can only list some universal characteristics of things that most people consider to be alive |
| Simply put, there is no solid definition of life. Defining life is elusive, like trying to define jazz or poetry. We can only list some universal characteristics of things that most people consider to be alive: | organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness and movement, homeostasis, growth and development |
| organization | Signs of being alive: -----, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness and movement, homeostasis, growth and development |
| cellular composition | Signs of being alive: Sorganization, -----, metabolism, responsiveness and movement, homeostasis, growth and development |
| metabolism | Signs of being alive: organization, cellular composition, -----, responsiveness and movement, homeostasis, growth and development |
| responsiveness | Signs of being alive: organization, cellular composition, metabolism, ----and movement, homeostasis, growth and development |
| movement | Signs of being alive: organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness and ---, homeostasis, growth and development |
| homeostasis | Signs of being alive: organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness and movement, -----, growth and development |
| growth and development | Signs of being alive: organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness and movement, homeostasis, ------ |
| Organization | Living things exhibit a far higher level of organization than the nonliving world around them. They expend a great deal of energy to maintain order, and a breakdown in this order is accompanied by disease and often death. |
| Cellular composition | Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells. |
| Metabolism | Living things take in molecules from the environment and chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide them with energy. |
| Metabolism | is the sum of all this internal chemical change. |
| Metabolism | There is a constant turnover of molecules in the body |
| Metabolism | Although you sense a continuity of personality and experience from your childhood to the present, nearly every molecule of your body has been replaced within the past year. |
| Responsiveness and movement | The ability to sense and react to stimuli (changes in the environment) is called responsiveness or excitability. |
| Responsiveness and movement | It occurs at all levels from the single cell to the entire body, and it characterizes all living things from bacteria to you |
| Responsiveness | is especially obvious in animals because of nerve and muscle cells that exhibit high sensitivity to environmental stimuli, rapid transmission of information, and quick reactions. |
| Responsiveness & Movement | Most living organisms are capable of self-propelled movement from place to place |
| Responsiveness & Movement | and all organisms and cells are at least capable of moving substances internally, such as moving food along the digestive tract or moving molecules and organelles from place to place within a cell. |
| Homeostasis | lthough the environment around an organism changes, the individual maintains relatively stable internal conditions—for example, a stable temperature, blood pressure, and body weight. |
| Growth and development | Development is any change in form or function over the lifetime of the organism. |
| Growth and development | (1) differentiation, the transformation of cells with no specialized function into cells that are committed to a particular task; and (2) growth, an increase in size. Some nonliving things grow, but not in the way your body does. |
| Some ---- things grow, but not in the way your body does. | nonliving |
| If you let a saturated sugar solution evaporate, crystals grow from it, but not through a change in the composition of the sugar. | They merely add more sugar molecules from the solution to the crystal surface. |
| The growth of the body, by contrast, occurs through ----; for the most part, your body is not composed of the molecules you ate but of molecules made by chemically altering your nutrients. | chemical change (metabolism) |
| Reproduction | Living organisms produce copies of themselves, thus passing their genes on to new, younger containers—their offspring. |
| Evolution | All living species exhibit genetic change from generation to generation and therefore evolve. |
| Evolution | This occurs because mutations (changes in DNA structure) are inevitable and environmental selection pressures favor the transmission of some genes more than others. |
| Evolution | Unlike the other characteristics of life, evolution is a characteristic seen only in the population or gene pool as a whole. |
| Evolution | No single individual evolves over the course of its life |
| Clinical and legal criteria of life differ from these | biological criteria |
| A person who has shown no brain waves for 24 hours, and has no reflexes, respiration, or blood flow other than what is provided by artificial life support, can be declared legally ----- | dead |
| At such time, however, most of the body is still biologically alive and its organs may be useful for ----. | transplant |
| Earlier we considered the clinical importance of variations in human anatomy, but ---- is even more variable. | physiology |
| ------ variables differ with sex, age, weight, diet, degree of physical activity, genetics, and environment, among other factors. | Physiological |
| Failure to consider such variation leads to medical mistakes such as overmedication of the elderly or medicating women on the basis of research done on young men | Physiological |
| If a textbook states a typical human heart rate, blood pressure, red blood cell count, or body temperature it is generally assumed, unless otherwise stated | that such values refer to a healthy 22-year-old weighing 58 kg (128 lb) for a female and 70 kg (154 lb) for a male, and a lifestyle of light physical activity and moderate caloric intake (2,000 and 2,800 kcal/day, respectively). |
| The human body has a remarkable capacity for | self-restoration |
| Hippocrates | commented that it usually returns to a state of equilibrium by itself, and people recover from most illnesses even without the help of a physician. |
| Homeostasis | This tendency results from----, the body's ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions, even in spite of greater changes in the surrounding environment. |
| French physiologist ---- observed that the internal conditions of the body remain quite constant even when external conditions vary greatly. | Claude Bernard (1813-78) |
| Claude Bernard (1813-78) | For example, whether it is freezing cold or swelteringly hot outdoors, the internal temperature of the body stays within a range of about 36° to 37°C (97°-99°F) |
| Walter Cannon (1871-1945) | coined the term homeostasis for this internal stability. |
| Walter Cannon (1871-1945) | homeostasis has been one of the most enlightening theories in physiology. |
| We now see ---- as largely a group of mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis, and the loss of homeostatic control as the cause of illness and death | physiology |
| Pathophysiology | is essentially the study of unstable conditions that result when our homeostatic controls go awry. |
| Do not, however, overestimate the degree of | internal stability |
| Internal conditions | aren't absolutely constant but fluctuate within a limited range, such as the range of body temperatures noted earlier. |
| The internal state of the body is best described as a ----, in which there is a certain set point or average value for a given variable (such as 37°C for body temperature) and conditions fluctuate slightly around this point. | dynamic equilibrium (balanced change) |
| Negative Feedback | Fundamental mechanism that keeps a variable close to its set point is; a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it. By maintaining stability, negative feedback is the key mechanism for maintaining health. |
| Negative Feedback | By maintaining stability, negative feedback is a key mechanism for maintaining health |
| These principles can be understood by comparison to a home | heating system |
| Suppose it is a cold winter day and you have set your thermostat for 20°C (68°F) | the set point |
| If the room becomes too cold, a temperature-sensitive switch in the thermostat turns on the furnace | The temperature rises to slightly above the set point, then the switch breaks the circuit and turns off the furnace. |
| This is a ---- process that reverses the falling temperature and keeps it within a narrow range of the set point | negative feedback |
| When the ---- turns off, the temperature slowly drops again until the switch is reactivated-thus, the ---- cycles on and off all day. | furnace |
| The room ---- doesn't stay at exactly 20 ̊C but fluctuates slightly—the system maintains a state of dynamic equilibrium in which the ---- averages 20°C and deviates only slightly from the set point. | temperature |
| Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them (temperature, for example), they are often called | feedback loops |
| Room Temperature falls to 19 C (67 F) -> Thermostat activates furnace -> Heat output -> Room Rises to 20 C (68 F) -> Thermostat shuts off furnace -> Room cools down | feedback loops |
| 36.5 *C (97.7 *F) | Vasoconstriction (Shivering) |
| Negative Feedback in Thermoregulation | (a) The negative feedback loop that maintains room temperature. |
| Negative Feedback | Negative feedback usually keeps the human body temperature within about 0.5°C of a 37°C set point. |
| Cutaneous vasoconstriction | and shivering set in when the body temperature falls too low, and soon raise it. |
| Cutaneous vasodilation | and sweating set in when body temperature rises too high, and soon lower it. |
| How does vasodilation reduces | Vasodilation allows more blood to flow close to the body surface and to lose heat through the skin; thus, it cools the body |
| Body temperature | is similarly regulated by a "thermostat❞—a group of nerve cells in the base of the brain that monitor the temperature of the blood. |
| If you become overheated, the --- triggers heat-losing mechanisms | thermostat |
| One of these is ---- (VAY-zo-dy-LAY-shun), the widening of blood vessels. | vasodilation |
| When vessels of the ----, warm blood flows closer to the body surface and loses heat to the surrounding air. | skin dilate |
| If this isn't enough to return your temperature to normal, sweating occurs; the ---- of water from the skin has a powerful cooling effect. | evaporation |
| Conversely, if it is cold outside and your body temperature drops much below 37°C, these nerve cells activate | heat-conserving mechanisms |
| The first to be activated is -----, a narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin, which serves to retain warm blood deeper in your body and reduce heat loss. | vasoconstriction |
| If this isn't enough, the brain activates ----- that generate heat. | shivering-muscle tremors |
| English physician Charles Blagden (1748–1820) | staged a rather theatrical demonstration of homeostasis long before Cannon coined the word. |
| In 1775, ---- spent 45 minutes in a chamber heated to 127°C (260°F)—along with a dog, beefsteaks and eggs, and some research associates. | Blagden |
| Being dead and unable to maintain ---- , the steaks were cooked well done in as little as 13 minutes and almost dry in 47 minutes, and the eggs were cooked hard. | homeostasis |
| But being alive and capable of evaporative cooling, the dog panted and the men sweated profusely. | homeostasis |
| Even at such extreme room temperatures, the men's oral temperatures were only | 37° to 38°C (98°-100°F). |
| Blagden said their nostrils felt scorched each time they inhaled the hot room air, and cooled each time they exhaled. Everyone including the dog survived, but history does not record whether the men ate the steak in celebration or shared it with the . | dog |
| Let's consider one more example-homeostatic control of blood pressure. | When you first rise from bed in the morning, gravity causes some of your blood to drain away from your head and upper torso, resulting in falling blood pressure in this region—a local imbalance in homeostasis |
| This is detected by sensory nerve endings called baroreceptors in large arteries above the heart. | Local imbalence of Homeostasis |
| They transmit nerve signals to the brainstem, where we have a cardiac center that regulates the heart rate. | Baroreceptors |
| Cardiac Center | responds by transmitting nerve signals to the heart, which speed it up. |
| The faster heart rate quickly raises the blood pressure and restores normal | homeostasis |
| In elderly people, this ---- is sometimes slow to respond, and they may feel dizzy as they rise from a reclining position and their cerebral blood pressure falls. This sometimes causes fainting. | feedback loop |
| Step 1: ---- Step 2: The blood from his upper body drains which in turn creates a homeostatic imbalance. Step 3: The baroreceptors above the heart respond to the drop in blood pressure. The arteries from the aorta of the heart are the receptors. | Step 1: The person rises from his bed. |
| Step 1: The person rises from his bed Step 2: ---- Step 3: The baroreceptors above the heart respond to the drop in blood pressure. The arteries from the aorta of the heart are the receptors. | Step 2: The blood from his upper body drains which in turn creates a homeostatic imbalance. |
| Step 1: The person rises from his bed. Step 2: The blood from his upper body drains which in turn creates a homeostatic imbalance. Step 3: --- | Step 3: The baroreceptors above the heart respond to the drop in blood pressure. The arteries from the aorta of the heart are the receptors. |
| Step 4: --- Step 5: The heart is the effector. The heartbeat accelerates in response to the cardiac center. Step 6: The blood pressure rises to normal, therefore the homeostasis is restored and back to normal. | Step 4: The brain is the integrating center. The baroreceptors send signals to the cardiac center of the brainstem. |
| Step 4: The brain is the integrating center. The baroreceptors send signals to the cardiac center of the brainstem. Step 5: --- The heartbeat accelerates in response to the cardiac center. Step 6: The blood pressure rises to normal, therefore the homeosta | Step 5: The heart is the effector. |
| Step 4: The brain is the integrating center. The baroreceptors send signals to the cardiac center of the brainstem. Step 5: The heart is the effector. The heartbeat accelerates in response to the cardiac center. Step 6: --- | Step 6: The blood pressure rises to normal, therefore the homeostasis is restored and back to normal. |
| This reflexive correction of --- illustrates three common, although not universal, components of a feedback loop: a receptor, an integrating center, and an effector. | blood pressure (baroreflex) |
| The ---- is a structure that senses a change in the body, such as the stretch receptors that monitor blood pressure. | receptor |
| such as the cardiac center of the brain, is a mechanism that processes this information, relates it to other available information | Integrating (Control) Center |
| (for example, comparing what the blood pressure is with what it should be), and makes a decision about what the appropriate response should be. | Integrating (Control) Center |
| The effector is the cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action. | In the example, it's the heart |
| receptor | The response, such as the restoration of normal blood pressure, is then sensed by the ----, and the feedback loop is complete. |
| is a self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater change in the same direction, rather than producing the corrective effects of negative feedback. | Positive feedback |
| Positive feedback | is often a normal way of producing rapid change. |
| When a woman is giving birth, for example, the head of the fetus pushes against her cervix (the neck of the uterus) and stimulates its nerve endings | Positive feedback |
| Nerve signals travel to the brain, which, in turn, stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete the | hormone oxytocin |
| travels in the blood and stimulates the uterus to contract. | Oxytocin |
| This pushes the fetus downward, stimulating the cervix still more and causing the ---- to be repeated. | positive feedback loop |
| Labor contractions therefore become more and more intense until the ---- is expelled. | fetus |
| Other cases of beneficial positive feedback are seen later in this book in, for example | blood clotting, protein digestion, and the generation of nerve signals. |
| ------ -> Nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain -> Brain stimulates pituitary gland -> Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus towards cervix | Head of fetus pushes against cervix |
| Head of fetus pushes against cervix -> ---- -> Brain stimulates pituitary gland -> Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus towards cervix | Nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain |
| Head of fetus pushes against cervix -> Nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain -> ---- -> Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus towards cervix | Brain stimulates pituitary gland |
| Head of fetus pushes against cervix -> Nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain -> Brain stimulates pituitary gland -> ---- | Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus towards cervix |
| Could childbirth as a whole be considered a negative feedback event? Discuss | Yes; one could say that pregnancy activates a series of events leading to childbirth, the termination of the pregnancy. Thus, it has the qualifies of a negative feedback loop. |
| Frequently, however, positive feedback is a harmful or even life-threatening process. | This is because its self-amplifying nature can quickly change the internal state of the body to something far from its homeostatic set point. |
| Consider a high fever, for example. | A fever triggered by infection is beneficial up to a point, but if the body temperature rises much above 40°C (104°F), it can create a dangerous positive feedback loop. |
| This high temperature raises the metabolic rate, which makes the body produce heat faster than it can get rid of it. | Thus, temperature rises still further, increasing the metabolic rate and heat production still more. |
| This "vicious circle" becomes fatal at approximately 45°C (113°F). | Thus, positive feedback loops often create dangerously out-of-control situations that require emergency medical treatment. |
| Another fundamental concept that will arise repeatedly in this book is that matter and energy tend to | flow down gradients |
| This simple principle underlies processes as diverse as blood circulation, respiratory airflow, urine formation, nutrient absorption, body water distribution, temperature regulation, and the action of nerves and muscles. | flow down gradients |
| A physiological gradient | is a difference in chemical concentration, electrical charge, physical pressure, temperature, or other variable between one point and another. |
| If matter or energy moves from the point where this variable ---, we say it flows down the gradient-for example, from a warmer to a cooler point, or a place of high chemical concentration to one of lower concentration. | has a higher value to the point with a lower value/ Movement in the opposite direction is up the gradient. |
| Outside of biology, ---- can mean a hill or slope, and this affords us a useful analogy to biological processes fig. 1.10a). | gradient |
| A wagon released at the top of a hill will roll down it (“flow”) spontaneously, without need for anyone to exert energy to move it. | Similarly, matter and energy in the body spontaneously flow down gradients, without the expenditure of metabolic energy. |
| Movement up a gradient does require an energy expenditure | just as we would have to push or pull a wagon to move it uphill. |
| The first illustration shows a small boy sliding down a small slope in a cartwheel. | The slope is marked with a down arrow and labeled 'Down gradient.' |
| The second illustration shows the small boy pulling up the cartwheel and walking up the slope. | The slope is marked with an up arrow and labeled 'Up gradient.' |
| If you open a water tap with a garden hose on it, you create a pressure gradient; water flows down the hose from the high-pressure point at the tap to the low-pressure point at the open end. | Each heartbeat is like that, creating a gradient from high blood pressure near the heart to low pressure farther away; blood flows down this gradient away from the heart (fig. 1.10b). |
| When we inhale, air flows down a ----- from the surrounding atmosphere to pulmonary air passages where the pressure is lower. | pressure gradient |
| A ---- also drives the process in which the kidneys filter water and waste products from the blood. | pressure gradient |
| Chemicals flow down | concentration gradients. |
| When we digest starch, a high concentration of sugars accumulates in the small intestine | The cells lining the intestine contain only a low concentration of sugars, so sugars flow from the intestinal space into these cells, thus becoming absorbed into the body's tissues. |
| through cell membranes and epithelia by osmosis, from the side where it is more concentrated to the side where it is less so. | Water flows |
| Charged particles flow down electrical gradients | Suppose there is a high concentration of sodium ions (Na†) just outside a cell and much lower concentration inside, so the outer surface of the cell membrane has a relatively positive charge and the inner surface is relatively negative |
| If we open channels in the membrane that will let sodium pass, sodium ions rush into the cell, flowing down their electrical gradient. | Because each Na* carries a positive charge, this flow constitutes an electrical current through the membrane. |
| We tap this current to make our nerves fire, our heart beat, and our muscles contract. | Electrical Gradient |
| In many cases, the flow of ions is governed by a combination of concentration and electrical charge differences between two points, and we say that ions flow down | Electrochemical Gradients. |
| Heat flows down a thermal gradient. | Suppose there is warm blood flowing through small arteries close to the skin surface, and the air temperature around the body is cooler |
| Heat | will flow from the blood through the tissues and to the surrounding air, down its thermal gradient, and be lost from the body. |
| heat flow | is also important in preventing the testes from overheating, which would otherwise prevent sperm production. |
| Biological criteria of life include organization | List four biological criteria of life and one clinical criterion: ----, metabolism, responsiveness, and reproduction. |
| metabolism | List four biological criteria of life and one clinical criterion: Biological criteria of life include organization, -----, responsiveness, and reproduction. |
| responsiveness | List four biological criteria of life and one clinical criterion: Biological criteria of life include organization, metabolism, ----, and reproduction. |
| reproduction | List four biological criteria of life and one clinical criterion: Biological criteria of life include organization, metabolism, responsiveness, and ----. |
| Explain how a person could be clinically dead but biologically alive | Clinically, a heartbeat or brain activity is often used. A person can be clinically dead, lacking heartbeat or brain activity, yet biologically alive if cellular processes continue. |
| Dynamic equilibrium | refers to the state where internal conditions fluctuate within a narrow range, maintaining balance despite external changes. |
| Homeostasis doesn't prevent change but regulates it to keep conditions stable. | Why would it wrong to say homeostasis prevents internal change? |
| Explain why stabilizing mechanisms are called negative feedback | Negative feedback mechanisms stabilize the body by sensing changes and initiating responses to counteract or reverse them. Imagine a thermostat maintaining room temperature. |
| Explain why stabilizing mechanisms are called positive feedback | Positive feedback amplifies changes. In biological systems, this can lead to rapid, destabilizing changes, disrupting homeostasis. For instance, during childbirth, contractions intensify as hormones increase, pushing the process forward. |
| Activates tissues generate carbon dioxide, which diffuses out the tissue into the bloodstream, to be carried. Is this diffusion into the blood a case of flow up a gradient or down? | When active tissues produce carbon dioxide, it diffuses into the bloodstream down a concentration gradient. This movement from high to low concentration is akin to water flowing downhill, driven by gravity, ensuring equilibrium. |
| One of the greatest challenges faced by students of anatomy and physiology is the ----- | vocabulary |
| In this book, you will encounter such Latin terms as corpus callosum (a brain structure), ligamentum arteriosum (a small fibrous band near the heart), and --- | extensor carpi radialis longus (a forearm muscle) |
| The major features of human gross anatomy have standard international names prescribed by a book titled the Terminologia Anatomica (TA). | The TA was codified in 1998 by an international committee of anatomists and approved by professional associations of anatomists in more than 50 countries. |
| About 90% of today's medical terms are formed from just 1,200 Greek and Latin roots. | Scientific investigation began in ancient Greece and soon spread to Rome. The Greeks and Romans coined many of the words still used in human anatomy today: duodenum, uterus, prostate, cerebellum, diaphragm, sacrum, amnion, and others |
| Anatomists in different countries began giving different names to the same structures. | Adding to the confusion, they often named new structures and diseases in honor of their esteemed teachers and predecessors, giving us such nondescriptive terms as fallopian tube and duct of Santorini. |
| Terms coined from the names of people, called -----, afford little clue as to what a structure or condition is. | eponyms |
| In hopes of resolving this growing confusion, anatomists began meeting as early as 1895 to devise a uniform international terminology. | After several false starts, they agreed on a list of terms that rejected all eponyms and gave each structure a unique Latin name to be used worldwide. |
| Even if you were to look at an anatomy atlas in Korean or Arabic, the illustrations may be labeled with the same Latin terms as in an English-language atlas. | That list served for many decades until recently replaced by the TA, which prescribes both Latin names and accepted English equivalents. |
| The terminology in this book conforms to the --- except where undue confusion would result from abandoning widely used, yet unofficial, terms. | TA |
| The task of learning medical terminology seems overwhelming at first, but it is a simple skill to become more comfortable with the technical language of medicine. | People who find scientific terms confusing and difficult to pronounce, spell, and remember often feel more confident once they realize the logic of how terms are composed. |
| A term such as hyponatremia is less forbidding once we recognize that it is composed of three common word elements: hypo- (below normal), natr- (sodium), and -emia (blood condition). | Thus, hyponatremia is a deficiency of sodium in the blood. |
| Those word elements appear over and over in many other medical terms: hypothermia, natriuretic, anemia, and so on. | Once you learn the meanings of hypo-, natri-, and -emia, you already have the tools to at least partially understand hundreds of other biomedical terms |
| Those word elements appear over and over in many other medical terms | hypothermia, natriuretic, anemia, and so on. |
| Once you learn the meanings of hypo-, natri-, and -emia, you already have the tools to at least partially understand hundreds of other --- | biomedical terms |
| At least one ----- that bears the core meaning of the word. | root (stem) |
| cardiology | root: cardi - (heart) |
| Many words have two or more roots | cardio [my] (muscle) and [path] (disease) |
| Combining vowels | that are often inserted to join roots and make the word easier to pronounce. |
| In ---- , each o is a combining vowel. | cardiomyopathy |
| Although ---- is the most common combining vowel, all vowels of the alphabet are used in this way, such as a in ligament, | o |
| e in vitreous | combining vowel |
| i in fusiform | combining vowel |
| u in ovulation | combining vowel |
| y in tachycardia | combining vowel |
| Some words, such as intervertebral, have no | combining vowels |
| A combination of a root and combining vowel is called a | combining form |
| for example, chrom- (color) + o (a combining vowel) make the combining form chromo-, as in chromosome. | combining form |
| A --- may be present to modify the core meaning of the word. | prefix |
| gastric | (pertaining to the stomach or to the belly of a muscle) takes on a variety of new meanings when prefixes are added to it |
| epigastric | (above the stomach) |
| hypogastric | (below stomach) |
| endogastric | (within the stomach) |
| digastric | (a muscle with two bellies) |
| A ---- may be added to the end of a word to modify its core meaning. | suffix |
| For example, microscope, microscopy, microscopic, and microscopist have different meanings because of their ---- alone. | sufix |
| Often two or more suffixes, or a root and suffix, occur together so often that they're treated jointly as a compound suffix | for example, log (study) + y (process) form the compound suffix -logy (the study of) |
| Prefixes and suffixes are collectively called ----. | affixes |
| gastro | a combining form meaning "stomach" |
| entero | a combining form meaning "small intestine" |
| a compound suffix meaning "the study of" | logy |
| "Dissecting" words in this way and paying attention to the word-origin footnotes throughout this book will help you become more comfortable with the language of anatomy. | gastro, entero, logy |
| Knowing how a ---- breaks down and knowing the meaning of its elements make it far easier to pronounce a word, spell it, and remember its definition. | word |
| There are a few unfortunate exceptions for breaking down elements, however. | The path from original meaning to current usage has often become obscured by history |
| The foregoing approach also is no help with eponyms or ---- words composed of the first letter, or first few letters, of a series of words. | acronyms |
| For example, a common medical imaging method is the PET scan, an acronym for | positron emission tomography. |
| Note that ----- is a pronounceable word, hence a true acronym. | PET |
| Acronyms | are not to be confused with simple abbreviations or initialisms such as DNA and MRI, in which each letter must be pronounced separately. |
| The literal translation of a word doesn't always provide great insight into its modern meaning. | The history of language is full of twists and turns that are fascinating in their own right and say much about the history of human culture, but they can create confusion for students. |
| For example, the ----- is a transparent sac that forms around the developing fetus. | amnion |
| The word is derived from amnos, from the Greek for “lamb.” | amnion |
| From this origin, amnos came to mean a bowl for catching the blood of sacrificial ----, and from there the word found its way into biomedical usage for the membrane that emerges (quite bloody) as part of the afterbirth. | lambs |
| The -----, the socket of the hip joint, literally means “vinegar cup." | acetabulum |
| Apparently the hip socket reminded an anatomist of the little cups used to serve vinegar as a condiment on dining tables in ancient Rome. | acetabulum |
| The word testicles can be translated "little pots" or "little witnesses." | The history of medical language has several amusing conjectures as to why this word was chosen to name the male gonads. |
| A point of ----- for many beginning students is how to recognize the plural forms of medical terms. | confusion |
| Ovaries | Pluarl for Ovary |
| Cortices | Plural for Cortex |
| Corpus | Plural for Corpora |
| Ganglia | Plural for Ganglion |
| axilla, axillae | singular: -a, plural: -ae |
| lumen, lumina | singular: -en, plural: -ina |
| cortex, cortices | singular: -ex, plural: -ices |
| diagnosis, diagnoses | singular: -is, pluarl: -es |
| epididymis, epididymides | singular: -is, plural: -ides |
| appendix, appendices | singular: -ix, plural: -ices |
| carcinoma, carcinomata | singular: -ma, plural: mata |
| ganglion, ganglia | singular: -on, plural: -a |
| septum, septa | singular: um, plural: -a |
| viscus, viscera | singular: us, plural: -era |
| villus, villi | singular: us, plural: -i |
| corpus, corpora | singular: us, plural: ora |
| phalanx, phalanges | singular: x, plural: -ges |
| ovary, ovaries | singular: y, plural: -ies |
| calyx, calyces | singular: -yx, plural: -yces |
| In some cases, what appears to the beginner to be two completely different words may be only the noun and adjective forms of the same word | For example, brachium denotes the arm, and brachii (as in the muscle name biceps brachii) means "of the arm." |
| For example, brachium denotes the arm | and brachii (as in the muscle name biceps brachii) means "of the arm." |
| Carpus denotes the wrist | and carpi, a word used in several muscle names, means "of the wrist." |
| Adjectives can also take different forms for the singular and plural and for different degrees of comparison. | The digits are the fingers and toes. |
| The word digiti in a muscle name means "of a single finger (or toe) | whereas digitorum is the plural, meaning "of multiple fingers (or toes)." |
| Thus, the extensor digiti minimi muscle extends only the little finger | whereas the extensor digitorum muscle extends all fingers except the thumb |
| The English words large, larger, and largest are examples of the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of comparison | In Latin, these are magnus, major (from maior), and maximus |
| We find these in the muscle names adductor magnus (a large muscle of the thigh), the pectoralis major (the larger of two pectoral muscles of the chest), and gluteus maximus (the largest of the three gluteal muscles of the buttock). | Comparative |
| Some noun variations indicate the possessive | such as the rectus abdominis, a straight (rectus) muscle of the abdomen (abdominis, “of the abdomen”), and the erector spinae, a muscle that straightens (erector) the spinal column (spinae, “of the spine"). |
| such as the rectus abdominis | a straight (rectus) muscle of the abdomen (abdominis, “of the abdomen”) |
| and the erector spinae, a muscle that | straightens (erector) the spinal column (spinae, “of the spine"). |
| Anatomical terminology also frequently follows the Greek and Latin practice of placing the adjective after the noun. | Thus, we have such names as the stratum lucidum for a clear (lucidum) layer (stratum) of the epidermis, the foramen magnum for a large (magnum) hole (foramen) in the skull, and the aforementioned pectoralis major muscle of the chest. |
| Clear | (lucidum) |
| Layer | (stratum) |
| magnum | (large) |
| hole | (foramen) |
| This is not to say that you must be conversant in Latin or Greek grammar to proceed with your study of anatomy. | These few examples, however, may alert you to some patterns to watch for in the terminology you study and, ideally, will make your encounters with anatomical terminology less confusing. |
| Pronunciation | is another stumbling block for many beginning anatomy and physiology students. |
| A final word of advice for your study of ----: Be accurate in your spelling and use of terms. | anatomy and physiology |
| It may seem trivial if you misspell trapezius as trapezium, but in doing so, you would be changing the name of a | back muscle to the name of a wrist bone. |
| trapezius | back muscle |
| trapezium | wrist bone |
| Similarly, changing occipitalis to occipital or zygomaticus to zygomatic changes other | muscle names to bone names. |
| Malleus | the name of a middle-ear bone |
| Malleolous | bony protuberance of the ankle |
| And there is only a one-letter difference between ileum | (the final portion of the small intestine) |
| ilium | (part of the hip bone) |
| Gustation | Sense of Taste |
| Gestation | Pregnancy |
| The --- demand the utmost attention to detail and accuracy-people's lives may one day be in your hands. | health professions |
| The habit of carefulness must extend to your use of language as well | . Many patients have died simply because of tragic written and oral miscommunication in the hospital. |
| Compared to this, it is hardly tragic if your instructor deducts a point or two for an error in spelling. | It should be considered a lesson learned about the importance of accuracy. |
| Explain why modern anatomical terminology is so heavily based on Greek and Latin. | This historical choice aids in avoiding misunderstandings in global scientific discourse. |
| An eponym is a term derived from a person's name, like | "Parkinson's disease," |
| while an acronym is formed from initial letters, such as "MRI" for | Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
| eponyms lack descriptive context, and acronyms may obscure meaning without | prior knowledge. |
| **Pericardium** | : "Peri-" (around) + "card" (heart) + "-ium" (membrane). |
| Peri - | Around |
| Card - | Heart |
| - Ium | Membrane |
| **Appendectomy | **: "Append" (appendix) + "-ectomy" (removal). |
| Append | (appendix) |
| Ectomy | (removal) |
| **Subcutaneous** | "Sub-" (under) + "cutane" (skin) + "-ous" (related to). |
| Sub | (under) |
| Cutane | (skin) |
| -ous | related to |
| **Phonocardiogram** | : "Phono-" (sound) + "cardio" (heart) + "-gram" (record). |
| : "Phono-" | (Sound) |
| "Cardio -" | (heart) |
| "-gram" | (record) |
| **Otorhinolaryngology**: | : "Oto-" (ear) + "rhino-" (nose) + "laryngo-" (throat) + "-logy" (study). |
| "Oto-" | (ear) |
| "rhino-" | (nose) |
| "laryngo-" | (throat) |
| "-logy" | (study) |
| Plural: Pleurae | Singular: Pleura |
| Plural: Gyri | Singular: Gyrus |
| Plural: Ganglia | Singular: Ganglion |
| Plural: Fissures | Singular: Fissure |
| Singular: villus | plural: villi |
| Singular: tibia | plural: tibiae |
| Singular: encenphalitis | plural: encephalitides |
| Singular: "cervix" | plural: "cervices," |
| Singular: "stoma" | plural: "stomata" |
| Unity of form and function | Form and function complement each other; physiology cannot be divorced from anatomy. |
| Unity of form and function | This unity holds true even down to the molecular level. Our very molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are structured in ways that enable them to carry out their functions. Slight changes in molecular structure can destroy their activity and threaten life. |
| Cell Theory | All structure and function result from the activity of cells. |
| Cell Theory | Every physiological concept in this book ultimately must be understood from the standpoint of how cells function. |
| Cell Theory | Even anatomy is a result of cellular function. |
| Cell Theory | If cells are damaged or destroyed, we see the results in disease symptoms of the whole person. |
| Evolution | The human body is a product of evolution. |
| Evolution | Like every other living species, we have been molded by millions of years of natural selection to function in a changing environment. |
| Evolution | Many aspects of human anatomy and physiology reflect our ancestors' adaptations to their environment. |
| Evolution | Human form and function cannot be fully understood except in light of our evolutionary history. |
| Hierarchy of complexity | Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity. |
| Hierarchy of complexity | Each level is composed of a smaller number of simpler subunits than the level above it. |
| Hierarchy of complexity | These subunits are arranged in different ways to form diverse structures of higher complexity. |
| Hierarchy of complexity | Understanding the simpler components is the key to understanding higher levels of structure. |
| Homeostasis | The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body. |
| Homeostasis | Human physiology is essentially a group of homeostatic mechanisms that produce stable internal conditions favorable to cellular function. |
| Homeostasis | Any serious departure from these conditions can be harmful or fatal to cells and thus to the whole body. |
| Gradients and flow | Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients such as differences in chemical concentration, pressure, temperature, and electrical charge. |
| Gradients and flow | This accounts for much of their movement in human physiology. |
| Architect Louis Henri Sullivan coined the phrase, "Form ever follows function." What do you think he meant by this? | Louis Henri Sullivan's phrase "Form ever follows function" suggests that the design of an object should be determined by its purpose. |
| Discuss how "Form ever follows function" could be applied to the human body and cite a specific example of human anatomy to support it. | In human anatomy, this is evident in the structure of the lungs. The alveoli, tiny air sacs, maximize surface area for gas exchange, reflecting their primary function of oxygenating blood. |
| Medical Imaging | The development of techniques for looking into the body without exploratory surgery has greatly accelerated progress in medicine |
| Radiography | , first performed in 1895, is the process of photographing internal structures with X-rays |
| Radiography | Until the 1960s, this was the only widely available imaging method; even today, it accounts for more than 50% of all clinical imaging. |
| Radiography | X-rays pass through the soft tissues of the body to a photographic film or detector on the other side, where they produce relatively dark images. |
| Radiography | They are absorbed, however, by dense matter such as bones, teeth, tumors, and tuberculosis nodules, which leave the image lighter in these areas. |
| X-ray | The term ---- also applies to an image (radiograph) made by this method. |
| Radiography | is commonly used in dentistry, mammography, diagnosis of fractures, and examination of the chest. |
| Hollow organs | can be visualized by filling them with a contrast medium that absorbs X-Rays |
| for example, is given orally for examination of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine or by enema for examination of the large intestine. | Barium sulfate |
| Some disadvantages of ---- are that images of overlapping organs can be confusing and slight differences in tissue density are not easily detected. | radiography |
| In addition, X- rays can cause mutations leading to cancer and birth defects. ---- therefore cannot be used indiscriminately. | Radiography |
| What structures are seen better by MRI than by X-ray? | MRI is better than X-rays for visualizing nervous tissue, since X-rays do not penetrate bone very well. It also shows better contrast than X-rays in visualization of other soft tissues. |
| What structures are seen better by X-ray tan by PET? | X-rays are better than PET scans for visualizing bones, teeth, and other hard or dense tissues, as PET scans have relatively low resolution and do not serve well to visualize tissues with little regional variation in metabolic rate. |
| Blood vessels can be seen especially clearly with a radiographic method called digital subtraction angiography (DSA) | This entails taking X-rays before and after injecting a contrast medium into a vessel. A computer then "erases" the first image from the second, leaving a clear, dark image of just the injected vessels without the overlying and surrounding tissues. |
| is already being replaced in many clinics, however, by yet newer methods that are less invasive and avoid contrast medium and radiation exposure. | DSA |
| DSA | This is useful for showing vascular blockages and anatomical malformations, abnormalities of cerebral blood flow, and narrowing (stenosis) of renal arteries, and as an aid in threading catheters into blood vessels. |
| Computed tomography | (a CT scan) is a more sophisticated application of X-rays. |
| Computed tomography | The patient is moved through a ring-shaped machine that emits low-intensity X-rays on one side and receives them with a detector on the opposite side. |
| Computed tomography | A computer analyzes signals from the detector and produces an image of a "slice" of the body about as thin as a coin. |
| Computed tomography | The advantage of such thin planes of view is that there is little overlap of organs, so the image is much sharper than a conventional X-ray. |
| Computed tomography | It requires extensive knowledge of cross-sectional anatomy to interpret the images. |
| Computed tomography | CT scanning is useful for identifying tumors, aneurysms, cerebral hemorrhages, kidney stones, and other abnormalities. |
| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | is better than CT for visualizing some soft tissues |
| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | The patient lies in either a tube or an open- sided scanner surrounded by a powerful electromagnet. |
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | Hydrogen atoms in the patient's tissues alternately align themselves with this magnetic field and with a radio-frequency field turned on and off by the technologist. |
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | These changes in hydrogen alignment generate signals that are analyzed by computer to produce an anatomical image. MRI can "see" clearly through the skull and spine to produce images of the nervous tissue |
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | has disadvantages, however, such as the claustrophobic feeling some patients experience in the scanner, loud noises generated by the machine, and long exposure times that prevent sharp images being made of the constantly moving stomach and intestines. |
| It requires a patient to lie still in the enclosed space for up to 45 minutes to scan one region of the body and may entail 90 minutes to scan multiple regions such as the abdominal and pelvic cavities. | MRI - Some patients find they cannot tolerate this. |
| Open-sided MRI machines | are favored by some claustrophobic or obese patients, but have weaker magnetic fields, produce poorer images, and may miss important tissue abnormalities. |
| Functional MRI (fMRI) | is a variation that visualizes moment-to-moment changes in tissue function. fMRI scans of the brain, for example, show shifting patterns of activity as the brain applies itself to a specific sensory, mental, or motor task. |
| Functional MRI (fMRI) | has lately replaced the PET scan as the most important method for visualizing brain function. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | is used to assess the metabolic state of a tissue and distinguish which tissues are most active at a given moment. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | The procedure begins with an injection of radioactively labeled glucose, which emits positrons (electron-like particles with a positive charge). |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | When a positron and electron meet, they annihilate each other and give off a pair of gamma rays that can be detected by sensors and analyzed by computer. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | The computer displays a color image that shows which tissues were using the most glucose at the moment. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | This is an example of nuclear medicine-the use of radioactive isotopes to treat disease or to form diagnostic images of the body. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | PET scans are generally low-resolution, as in this photo, but nevertheless provide valuable diagnostic information |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | In cardiology, PET scans can show the extent of tissue death from a heart attack. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | Since it consumes little or no glucose, the damaged tissue appears dark. |
| PET scans | are also widely used to diagnose cancer and evaluate tumor status. |
| It is now possible to diagnose Alzheimer disease (AD) with | PET scans |
| PET scans | Until recently, a definitive diagnosis required analysis of brain tissue after death. |
| PET scans | Examining living AD patients with ----- makes earlier diagnosis possible, potentially enabling more effective management of the disease. |
| PET scans | Conventional ---- take about 20 minutes, but new technology has enabled three-dimensional, whole-body scans to be made in as little as 20 seconds, with lower radiation exposure. |
| PET scans | This is helpful in scanning children, who may have difficulty lying still for 20 minutes. |
| Sonography | is the second oldest and second most widely used method of imaging |
| Sonography | A handheld device pressed against the skin produces high-frequency ultrasound waves and receives the signals that echo back from internal organs. |
| Sonography | isn't very useful for examining bones or lungs, but it is the method of choice in obstetrics, where the image (sonogram) can be used to locate the placenta and evaluate fetal age, position, and development. |
| Sonography | is also used to view tissues in motion, such as fetal movements, actions of the heart wall and valves, and blood ejection from the heart and flow through arteries and veins. |
| Sonographic | imaging of the beating heart is called echocardiography. |
| Sonography | avoids the harmful effects of X-rays, and the equipment is inexpensive and portable. |
| The meanings of anatomy and physiology and what it means to say these two sciences are complementary and inseparable | These sciences are inseparable because knowing the structure (anatomy) helps explain how it works (physiology), and vice versa. |
| Methods of study in anatomy | In anatomy, methods of study include dissection, imaging techniques like MRI and CT scans, and histology, which examines tissues microscopically. |
| Methods of study in physiology | Clinical examination involves physical assessments such as palpation, auscultation, and percussion to assess patient health. |
| Branches of anatomy that study the body at different levels of detail | Gross anatomy, Microscopic Anatomy, |
| How comparative physiology advances the understanding of human function | Comparative physiology enhances our understanding of human function by examining how different species solve life challenges like respiration and water balance. |
| Greek who first gave medicine a scientific basis | Greek and Roman scholars laid the foundation for scientific medicine by shifting focus from superstition to empirical observation. Hippocrates, often considered the "Father of Medicine," emphasized clinical observation and ethics. |
| Roman who gave medicine on a scientific basis | Galen advanced anatomical knowledge through dissections. |
| Maimonides | integrated Greek and Arabic medical knowledge, |
| Avicenna's | "The Canon of Medicine" became a medical reference for centuries |
| Vesalius | challenged anatomical misconceptions through detailed human dissections |
| Harvey | discovery of blood circulation revolutionized understanding of the cardiovascular system. |
| Why medical science today owes such a great debt to Hooke, | improved the microscope, allowing him to observe and name cells |
| Why medical science today owes such a great debt to Leeuwenhoek | enhancements enabled the discovery of microorganisms |
| How Schleiden and Schwann revolutionized and unified the understanding of biological structure, ultimately including human anatomy and physiology | revolutionized biology by proposing the Cell Theory, which states that all living organisms are composed of cells, and that the cell is the basic unit of life. |
| The essential qualities of the scientific method | is like a recipe for discovery, requiring observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and analysis. Key qualities include systematic observation, reproducibility, and falsifiability. |
| The nature of the inductive and hypothetico-deductive methods | The inductive method involves observing specific instances and forming general conclusions, like piecing together a puzzle from individual pieces. |
| How does inductive and hypothetico-dedutive methods differ | The hypothetico-deductive method, akin to testing a hypothesis in a lab, starts with a general idea and tests it through experiments. |
| How does inductive and hypothetico-dedutive methods differ | Inductive reasoning is often used in exploratory research, while hypothetico-deductive is prevalent in hypothesis-driven studies in biomedical science. |
| The qualities of a valid scientific hypothesis | A valid scientific hypothesis must be testable, measurable, and falsifiable, meaning it can be proven wrong. |
| The function of a hypothesis | Think of it as a detective's lead: it guides research and can be dismissed if evidence contradicts it. |
| What is meant by falsifiability in science? | is crucial because it ensures hypotheses can be rigorously tested, promoting scientific integrity and advancing knowledge. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: sample size | A large sample size ensures diverse data, akin to surveying a large audience for varied opinions. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: control groups | Control groups allow researchers to isolate variables, like comparing different plant growth conditions. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: double-blind method | The double-blind method prevents bias by keeping both participants and researchers unaware of group assignments. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: Statistical Testing | Statistical testing validates results, ensuring they're not due to chance. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: Peer Review | acts as a quality check, much like a manuscript editor, ensuring the study's credibility before public dissemination |
| The distinctions between scientific facts, laws, and theories | In science, facts are observations confirmed repeatedly, like "water boils at 100°C." Laws describe relationships under specific conditions, such as Newton's laws of motion. |
| the purpose of a theory | serves as a comprehensive framework that synthesizes facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses into explanatory statements. |
| how the scientific meanings of law differ from common lay meanings | In science, a law describes consistent natural phenomena, like the law of gravity, without dictating them. |
| how the scientific meanings of theory from common lay meanings | A theory, such as the theory of evolution, is a comprehensive explanation derived from extensive evidence, not a mere guess. |
| Evolution is the genetic change in populations | like bacteria becoming antibiotic-resistant. |
| Natural selection favors individuals with advantageous traits | like disease resistance, boosting their reproduction. |
| Selection pressures | , such as predators or climate, drive this process. |
| Adaptations are traits developed to handle these pressures, aiding survival and reproduction | , like camouflaged skin or behavioral changes. |
| The theory of ----, introduced by Charles Darwin in the 19th century, revolutionized our understanding of evolution. | natural selection |
| And how this theory is relevant to a complete understanding of human anatomy and physiology | The theory of natural selection is crucial for understanding human anatomy and physiology. |
| How the ---- among all species is relevant to the choice of model animals for biomedical research | Kinship among species is crucial in biomedical research as it allows scientists to use model animals with similar biological systems to humans. |
| Ecological conditions thought to have selected for such key characteristics of Homo sapiens as opposable thumbs, shoulder mobility, prehensile hands, stereoscopic vision, color vision, and bipedal locomotion | For instance, opposable thumbs allowed for better grasping of objects, while bipedalism enabled efficient movement across diverse terrains, highlighting the role of adaptation in human evolution. |
| The meaning of evolutionary medicine | explores how evolutionary principles, like natural selection and adaptation, influence human health and disease. |
| Levels of human or complexity from organism to atom | Each level builds upon the previous, contributing to overall function and structure. |
| [Reductionism] and holism: how they differ and why both ideas are relevant to the study of human anatomy and physiology and to the clinical care of patients | reductionism aids in detailed understanding, |
| Reductionism and [holism]: how they differ and why both ideas are relevant to the study of human anatomy and physiology and to the clinical care of patients | while holism ensures a comprehensive view, vital for effective patient care. |
| Examples of why the anatomy presented in textbooks is not necessarily true of every individual | For instance, not everyone has the same number of ribs or identical heart placement. Recognizing these variations is crucial for personalized medical care and understanding human diversity. |
| Eight essential qualities that distinguish living organisms from nonliving things | organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. |
| Eight essential qualities: ----, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. | organization |
| Eight essential qualities: organization, -----, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. | cellular composition |
| organization, cellular composition, ----, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. | metabolism |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, -----, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. | responsiveness |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, -----, development, reproduction, and evolution. | homeostasis |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, ----, reproduction, and evolution. | development |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, -----, and evolution. | reproduction |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and ---- | evolution |
| The meaning of metabolism | Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. |
| Clinical criteria for life and death | A person with no brain waves for 24 hours and dependent on artificial support may be legally declared dead, though some organs remain biologically viable for transplantation |
| and why clinical and biological death are not exactly equivalent | Biological death occurs when cellular processes cease irreversibly. Clinical death is the cessation of heartbeat and breathing, which can sometimes be reversed with medical intervention |
| among individuals is crucial in clinical settings as it influences diagnosis and treatment. | Physiological variation |
| offer typical values based on averages, but these don't account for individual differences. | Textbooks |
| Assumptions | in textbooks can overlook variations due to genetics, environment, or lifestyle, highlighting the need for personalized medical approaches to ensure accurate assessments and effective healthcare. |
| The meaning of homeostasis; its importance for survival; and the historical origin of this concept | Historically, Claude Bernard introduced the concept, emphasizing the body's dynamic equilibrium. |
| How negative feedback contributes to homeostasis | Similarly, in the body, negative feedback loops regulate internal conditions like blood pressure and glucose levels, ensuring stability. |
| The meaning of negative feedback loop | It maintains stability by counteracting changes. For example, in thermoregulation, if body temperature drops, mechanisms like shivering raise it back to the set point of around 37°C. |
| and at least one example of a neagtive loop | The brain then instructs sweat glands (effectors) to produce sweat, cooling the body back to a stable state. |
| How positive feedback differs from negative feedback | Positive feedback amplifies changes. In contrast, negative feedback maintains stability by counteracting changes, similar to a thermostat regulating room temperature. |
| examples of beneficial and harmful cases of positive feedback | Conversely, in a high fever, it can be harmful, as rising temperatures increase metabolic rates, generating more heat and potentially leading to a dangerous cycle if not controlled. |
| The concept of matter and energy flowing down gradients and how this applies to various areas of human physiology | Gradients drive essential biological functions, ensuring efficient energy use and maintaining homeostasis. |
| The origin and purpose of the Terminologia Anatomica (TA) and its relevance for anatomy students | The *Terminologia Anatomica (TA)* is a standardized medical lexicon that originated to unify anatomical terminology globally. For anatomy students, it's like a universal language guide, ensuring clarity and precision |
| How to break biomedical terms into familiar roots, prefixes, and suffixes | Breaking biomedical terms into roots, prefixes, and suffixes is like solving a puzzle. For example, in "cardiomyopathy," "cardio" refers to the heart, "myo" to muscle, and "pathy" to disease. |
| And why the habit of breaking biomedical terms doing so aids in learning | his habit helps in learning by revealing the term's meaning, aiding memory retention, and improving understanding. |
| Acronyms and eponyms, and why they cannot be understood by trying to analyze their roots | Acronyms, like "MRI" for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, condense complex phrases into initials. Eponyms, such as "Parkinson's disease," honor individuals, not word roots. |
| Structure that can be observed with the naked eye is called | gross anatomy |
| The word prefix homeo- means | same |
| The simplest structures considered to be alive are | cells |
| Which of the following people revolutionized the teaching of gross anatomy? | Vesalius |
| Which of the following embodies the greatest amount of scientific information? | a theory |
| An informed, uncertain, but testable conjecture is | a hypothesis |
| A self-amplifying chain of physiological events is called | positive feedback |
| Which of the following is not a human organ system? | epithelial |
| means studying anatomy by touch | palpation |
| The prefex "hetero -" means | different |
| Cutting and separating tissues to reveal structural relationships is called | dissection |
| A difference in chemical concentration between one point and another is called a concentration | gradient |
| By the process of ---, a medical researcher predicts what the result of a certain experiment will be if his or hypothesis is correct | deduction |
| Psychological effects of a person's mental state are called ---- effects | psychosomatic |
| The tendency of the body to maintain stable internal conditions conditions is called | homeostasis |
| Blood pH averages 7.4 but fluctuates from 7.35 to 7.45. A pH of 7.4 can therefore be considered the ---- for this variable | set point |
| Self-corrective mechanisms in physiology are called ----- loops | negative feedback |
| A/an ------ is the simplest body structure to be composed of two or more type of tissue | organ |
| Depth perception, or the ability to form three-dimensional images, is also called --- | stereoscopic vision |
| Our hands are said to be --- because they can encircle an object such as a branch or a tool. The presence of an ---- thumb is important to this ability. | prehensile, opposable |
| auscult - | listen-ausculation |
| dis - | apart-dissection |
| homeo - | the same-homeostasis |
| metabolo - | change-metabolism |
| palp - | touch-palpation |
| Physio - | nature-physiology |
| Sect - | Cut-Dissection |
| - Stasis | To stay-homeostasis |
| Stereo - | Solid-Stereostopic |
| Tomo - | to cut -tomography |
| The technique for taking a patient's pulse at the wrist is auscultation | auscultation means listening to body sounds, not inspecting the body by touch |
| For a pregnant woman to have an MRI scan would expose her fetus to radiation that can potentially cause mutation and birth defects | MRI does not involve ionizing radiation and has no known risk to a fetus |
| We usually depend on positive feedback to restore homeostatic balance and have a beneficial effect of the body | Positive feedback is beneficial in limited cases, but more often it causes rapid departure from the homeostatic set point and may cause illness or death. |
| There are more cells than organelles in the body | Each cell has many organelles, so organelles far outnumber cells |
| Matter doesn't generally move down a gradient in the body unless the body expends metabolic energy to move it | Matter will move spontaneously down a gradient without the need application of external energy |
| Leewenhock was a biologist who invented the simple microscope in order to examine organisms in lake water | Leewenhock was a textile merchant who built microscopes to examine fabric |
| A scientific theory is just a speculation until someone finds the evidence to prove it | A scientific theory is founded on a large body of evidence and summarizes what is already known |
| In a typical clinical research study, volunteer patients are in the treatment group and the physicians and scientists who run the study constitute the control group | Both treatment and control groups consist of volunteer patients |
| Human evolution is basically a theory that humans came from monkeys | Evolutionary biologists do not believe humans evolved from monkeys, but the humans and apes evolved from the same ancestor |
| Negative feedback usually has a negative (harmful) effect on the body | Negative feedback is a self-corrective process with a beneficial effect on the body |
| What are the basic principles of the cell theory? | 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life, where all vital functions occur. 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division. |
| Squamous | When describing cell shapes, "squamous" refers to thin, flat cells, similar to a fried egg. |
| Why can't cells grow to unlimited size? | Cells can't grow to unlimited size because of the surface area-to-volume ratio. Imagine a balloon: as it inflates, its surface area increases slower than its volume. |
| What is the difference between cytoplasm? | The cytoplasm is like a bustling city within a cell, containing everything between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It includes structures like the cytoskeleton, organelles, and inclusions. |
| Define intracellular fluid (ICF) | Intracellular fluid (ICF) refers to the liquid found inside cells, primarily composed of cytosol, where cellular components are suspended. It plays a vital role in maintaining cellular function and structure |
| "Stellate" | "Stellate" cells resemble stars with pointed extensions, like nerve cells. |
| "Columnar" | cells are taller than they are wide, resembling columns, found in the stomach lining. |
| "Fusiform" | cells are spindle-shaped, elongated with tapered ends, typical of smooth muscle cells. |
| What is the difference between cytosol? | on the other hand, is akin to the city's air, a clear fluid that fills spaces between these structures, allowing for movement and chemical reactions. |
| extracellular fluid (ECF) | . In contrast, extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds cells, including blood plasma, lymph, and cerebrospinal fluid. |
| Many physiologically important processes occur at the surface of a cell-immune responses, the binding of egg and sperm, cell-to-cell signaling by hormones, and the detection of tastes and smells, for example. | A substantial part of this chapter is therefore concerned with the cell surface. |
| The plasma membrane defines the boundaries of the cell, governs its interactions with other cells, and controls the passage of materials into and out of the cell. | It appears to the electron microscope as a pair of dark parallel lines with a total thickness of about 7.5 nm |
| The side that faces the cytoplasm is the intracellular face of the membrane, and the side that faces outward is the extracellular face | . Similar membranes enclose most of a cell's organelles and control their uptake and release of chemicals. |
| Membrane Lipids | shows our current concept of the molecular structure of the plasma membrane—an oily film of lipids with proteins embedded in it. |
| Typically about 98% of the membrane molecules are lipids, | and about 75% of those are phospholipids. |
| phospholipids | These amphipathic molecules arrange themselves into a sandwichlike bilayer, with their hydrophilic phosphate-containing heads facing the water on each side and their hydrophobic tails directed toward the center, avoiding the water. |
| The phospholipids drift laterally from place to place, spin on their axes, and flex their tails. | These movements keep the membrane fluid. |
| What would happen if the plasma membrane were made primarily of a hydrophilic substance such as carbohydrate? Which of the major themes at the end of chapter 1 does this point best exemplify? | If the plasma membrane were primarily hydrophilic, like carbohydrates, it would fail to form a protective barrier, as it would dissolve in water. |
| Cholesterol molecules, found near the membrane surfaces amid the phospholipids, constitute about 20% of the membrane lipids. | By interacting with the phospholipids and holding them still, cholesterol can stiffen the membrane (make it less fluid) in spots. |
| Higher concentrations of cholesterol, | however, can increase membrane fluidity by preventing phospholipids from packing closely together. |
| The remaining 5% of the membrane lipids are glycolipids-phospholipids with short carbohydrate chains on the extracellular face of the membrane. | They contribute to the glycocalyx, a carbohydrate coating on the cell surface with multiple functions, described shortly. |
| Although proteins are only about 2% of the molecules of the plasma membrane, | they're larger than lipids and average about 50% of the membrane by weight. |
| There are two broad classes of membrane proteins: transmembrane and peripheral. Transmembrane proteins pass completely through the phospholipid bilayer, protruding from it on both sides. | They have hydrophilic regions in contact with the water on both sides, and hydrophobic regions that pass back and forth through the lipid |
| Most transmembrane proteins are glycoproteins, bound to oligosaccharides on the extracellular side. | Many of these proteins drift about freely in the phospholipid film, like ice cubes floating in a bowl of water. |
| Others are anchored to the cytoskeleton—an intracellular system of tubules and filaments discussed later. Peripheral proteins don't protrude into the phospholipid layer but adhere to either the inner or outer face of the membrane. | Those on the inner face are typically anchored to a transmembrane protein as well as to the cytoskeleton. |
| Transmembrane Proteins | A transmembrane protein has hydrophobic regions embedded in the phospholipid bilayer and hydrophilic regions projecting into the intracellular and extracellular fluids. |
| Transmembrane Proteins | The protein may cross the membrane once (left) or multiple times (right). The intracellular regions are often anchored to the cytoskeleton by peripheral proteins. |
| Receptors | Many of the chemical signals by which cells communicate (epinephrine, for example) cannot enter the target cell but bind to surface proteins called receptors. |
| Receptors | are usually specific for one particular messenger, much like an enzyme that is specific for one substrate. |
| Plasma membranes | also have receptor proteins that bind chemicals and transport them into the cell, as discussed later in this chapter. |
| When a messenger binds to a surface receptor, it may trigger changes within the cell that produce a second messenger in the cytoplasm. | This process involves both transmembrane proteins (the receptors) and peripheral proteins. Second-messenger systems are discussed shortly in more detail. |
| Enzymes in the plasma membrane carry out the final stages of starch and protein digestion in the small intestine, help produce second messengers, and break down hormones | and other signaling molecules whose job is done, thus stopping them from excessively stimulating a cell. |
| Channel proteins | Channels are passages that allow water and hydrophilic solutes to move through the membrane. |
| A channel is a tunnel that passes through a complex of multiple proteins or between subunits of an individual protein. | Some of them, called leak channels, are always open and allow materials to pass through continually. |
| Others, called ------, open and close under different circumstances and allow solutes through at some times, but not others | gates (gated channels) |
| These gates respond to three types of stimuli: ligand-gated channels respond to chemical messengers, voltage-gated channels to changes in electrical potential (voltage) | across the plasma membrane, and mechanically gated channels to physical stress on a cell, such as stretch and pressure. |
| By controlling the movement of ---- through the plasma membrane, gated channels play an important role in the timing of nerve signals and muscle contraction | electrolytes |
| Some receptors double in function as gated channels. When a nerve stimulates a muscle, for example, a chemical from the nerve fiber binds to a receptor on the muscle fiber | and the receptor opens to allow sodium and potassium ions to flow through and excite the muscle. Defects in channel proteins are responsible for a family of diseases called channelopathies. |
| Carriers | Carriers are transmembrane proteins that bind to glucose, electrolytes, and other solutes and transfer them to the other side of the membrane. Some carriers, called pumps, consume ATP in the process. |
| Cell-identity markers | Glycoproteins contribute to the glycocalyx, which acts like an “identification tag” that enables the immune system to tell which cells belong to one's body and which are foreign invaders. |
| Cell-adhesion molecules : Cells adhere to one another and to extracellular material through membrane proteins called cell-adhesion molecules (CAMS). With few exceptions (such as blood cells and metastasizing cancer cells), | cells don't survive and grow normally unless they're mechanically linked to extracellular material |
| Special events | such as sperm-egg binding and the binding of an immune cell to a cancer cell also require CAMS. |
| Receptor | A receptor that binds to chemical messengers such as hormones sent by other cells. |
| Enzyme | An enzyme that breaks down a chemical messenger and terminates its effect. |
| Channel | A channel protein that is constantly open and allows solutes to pass into and out of the cell. |
| Gated channel | A gate that opens and closes to allow solutes through only at certain times. |
| Cell-identity marker | A glycoprotein acting as a cell-identity marker distinguishing the body's own cells from foreign cells. |
| Cell-adhesion molecule (CAM) | A cell-adhesion molecule (CAM) that binds one cell to another. |
| Calcium channel blockers are a class of drugs that show the therapeutic relevance of understanding gated membrane channels. | The walls of the arteries contain smooth muscle that contracts or relaxes to change their diameter. |
| These changes modify the blood flow and strongly influence blood pressure. | Blood pressure rises when the arteries constrict and falls when they relax and dilate. |
| Excessive, widespread vasoconstriction can cause hypertension (high blood pressure), and vasoconstriction in the coronary blood vessels of the heart can cause pain (angina) due to inadequate blood flow to the cardiac muscle | . In order to contract, a smooth muscle cell must open calcium channels in its plasma membrane and allow calcium to enter from the extracellular fluid. |
| Calcium channel | blockers prevent these channels from opening and thereby relax the arteries, increase blood flow, relieve angina, and lower the blood pressure. |
| Second messengers | are of such importance that they require a closer look. |
| Let's consider how the hormone epinephrine stimulates a cell. Epinephrine, the "first messenger," can't pass through the plasma membrane, so it binds to a surface receptor. | The receptor is linked on the intracellular side to a peripheral G protein |
| G proteins are named for the ATP-like chemical, guanosine triphosphate (GTP), from which they get their energy. | When activated by the receptor, a G protein relays the signal to another membrane protein, adenylate cyclase |
| Adenylate cyclase | removes two phosphate groups from ATP and converts it to cyclic AMP (CAMP), the second messenger |
| Cyclic AMP | then activates cytoplasmic enzymes called kinases (KY-nace-es), which add phosphate groups to other cellular enzymes. |
| kinases | This activates some enzymes and deactivates others, but either way, it triggers a great variety of physiological changes within the cell. Up to 60% of drugs work by altering the activity of G proteins. |
| 1. | A messenger such as epinephrine (red triangle) binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane. |
| 2. | The receptor releases a G protein, which then travels freely in the cytoplasm and can go on to step 3 or have various other effects on the cell. |
| 3. | The G protein binds to an enzyme, adenylate cyclase, in the plasma membrane. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP), the second messenger. |
| 4. | cAMP activates a cytoplasmic enzyme called a kinase. |
| 5. | Kinases add phosphate groups (P) to other cytoplasmic enzymes. This activates some enzymes and deactivates others, leading to varied metabolic effects in the cell. |
| Is adenylate cyclase a transmembrane protein or a pephireal protein? What about G protein? | Adenylate cyclase is a transmembrane protein. The G protein is peripheral |
| A receptor protein spans across a | cell membrane and binds with a signal molecule on the outside of the cell. |
| In the - in the cell's interior, guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binds with the G protein before it migrates to and activates a single adenylyl cyclase molecule. This releases cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which is acting as the second messenger. | cytoplasm |
| The ---- molecules stimulate a molecule, protein kinase, in the cell, which activates an enzyme and produces several enzymatic product molecules. | cAMP |
| Receptor proteins interact with signal molecules at the surface of the cell. In most cases, the signals are relayed to the cytoplasm or the nucleus by second messengers, which influence the activity of one or more enzymes or genes inside the cell. | However, most signaling molecules are found in such low concentrations that their effects in the cytoplasm would be minimal unless the signal were amplified." |
| The signal and receptor molecules are the same as before, and there are four molecules of adenylyl cyclase not yet activated. | In the cell, there are five each of GTP and G protein molecules. A single signal molecule binds with the receptor protein and activates the entire series of four G protein molecules, one after the other. |
| Therefore, most enzyme-linked and G protein–linked receptors use a chain of other protein messengers to amplify the signal as it is being relayed. In the case of a protein kinase cascade, one cell surface receptor activates many G protein molecules. | Each G protein activates many adenylyl cyclases. Each cyclic AMP in turn will activate protein kinases, which then activates several molecules of a specific enzyme. The end result is rapid production of high levels of the final product. |
| External to the plasma membrane, all animal cells have a fuzzy coat called the | glycocalyx |
| composed of the carbohydrate moieties of membrane glycolipids and glycoproteins. | glycocalyx |
| It is chemically unique in everyone but ----- and acts like an identification tag that enables the body to distinguish its own healthy cells from transplanted tissues, invading organisms, and diseased cells. | identical twins |
| Human blood types and transfusion compatibility | are determined by glycolipids |
| Protection | Cushions the plasma membrane and protects it from physical and chemical injury |
| Immunity to infection | Enables the immune system to recognize and selectively attack foreign organisms |
| Defense against cancer | Changes in the glycocalyx of cancerous cells enable the immune system to recognize and destroy them |
| Transplant compatibility | Forms the basis for compatibility of blood transfusions, tissue grafts, and organ transplants |
| Cell adhesion | Binds cells together so tissues don't fall apart |
| Fertilization | Enables sperm to recognize and bind to eggs |
| Embryonic development | Guides embryonic cells to their destinations in the body |
| Many cells have surface extensions called -----. These aid in absorption, movement, and sensory processes. | microvilli, cilia, flagella, and pseudopods |
| Anatomy is the study of | body structures |
| Chemisty | is the study of matter |
| Kinesiology | is the study of human movement |
| Body Functions | Physiology is the study of body functions |
| What is an example of percussion? | Tapping on the body to listen for pockets of air |
| The term for the process of carefully separating tissues to reveal anatomical relationships is | dissection |
| Most exploratory surgery has been replaced with | medical imaging techniques |
| When a doctor feels for a swollen lymph node, which action is she using in her exam? | palpation |
| Students are looking at major arteries and veins on the surface of the heart, which does not require a microscope. They are studying ---- of the heart | gross anatomy |
| Histology is also called | microscopic anatomy |
| Who was the famous physician who served in the court of the sultan, Saladin | Maimonides |
| Andreas Vesalius | Vesalius was the Italian who taught anatomy to medical students using cadavers in the 1500s |
| Avicenna | Avicenna was the Muslim scholar who wrote the book, The Canon of Medicine |
| The study of ultrastructure focuses on fine details of cells or other structures. | False |
| The subdiscipline of physiology that is concerned with the mechanisms of disease is | pathophysiology |
| Percussion | Percussion refers to tapping on a body surface then listening to the echo to diagnose health. |
| Auscultation | refers to performing a physical examination by listening to sounds in the body |
| Palpation | Palpation refers to examination by feeling the body surface. |
| Autopsy | is a postmortem examination of the body by dissection |
| Galen | was the physician to the Roman gladiators who wrote extensively about human anatomy |
| Aristotle | wrote a book called "Of the Parts of Animals" |
| Maimonides | was the Jewish physician who served in the court of Saladin and wrote many books on medicine and diseases. |
| Andreas Vesalius | Vesalius was the Italian who taught anatomy to medical students using cadavers in the 1500s |
| Avicenna | was the Muslim scholar who wrote the book, The Canon of Medicine |
| Who was the Jewish physician that wrote 10 medical books and numerous books on diseases? | Maimonides |
| Who wrote the "Canon of Medicine" | Avicenna |
| In the 1500s ----- made great contributions to the study of physiology especially the heart | William Harvey |
| Who was the anatomist that taught anatomy anatomy to medical students using cadavers in the 1500s? | Andreas Vesalius |
| Robert Hooke authored a book called | Micrographia |
| Which of the following is a process by which an educated guess is capable of being tested and may be proven false by experimentation? | Scientific Method |
| Socratic method | This method of teaching by question and answer |
| Scientific hypothesis | This is not a process. It is an educated guess based on observations. |
| An education speculation or possible answer to a scientific question is called an | hypothesis |
| ---- was a Roman Physician and wrote an influential textbook. William Harvey is credited with beginning the field of experimental physiology | Galen |
| An example of a well-designed experiment would have a(n) ----- group, which would receive a placebo, and (a) ---- group, which would receive the intervention (i.e. treatment) being tested. | control, experimental |
| What method is used to control experimental bias where neither the subject nor the person giving treatment and recording data know which subjects are receiving the treatment and which are receiving the placebo? | double-blind method |
| A review that is the method of evaluating results by other experts in that field is called a(n) ----- review. | peer |
| What are the benefits of a large sample size? | It controls for chance events., It enables us to place greater confidence in the outcome., and It controls for individual variation.. |
| The information that can be independently verified by any trained person is considered a scientific | fact |
| The person best known for this theory of natural selection is Charles | Darwin |
| Evolution | a change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms |
| A treetop habitat is also called an ---- habitat | arboreal |
| What is the ability to walk upright on two feet called? | Bipedalism |
| Stereoscopic vision | This is the ability to see in 3-D |
| Opposable thumbs | This is the ability to hold a small object between the figures. |
| A tissue is more complex than an organ | False |
| Organs | are composed of tissues, and are thus more compex. |
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