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Psychology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cell body | Cells life support center |
| Dendrite | Recieves messages from other cells |
| Axon | Passes messages away from the cell body to the other nuerons, muscle glands |
| Myelin sheath | Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed nueral impulses |
| Hormones | chemical messengers that play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including psychological processes. They influence mood, behavior, and cognitive abilities. |
| Adrenal glands | inner part helps trigger "fight or flight" response |
| Pituitary glands | Master Gland: sectretes many different hormones: some of which affect other glands |
| Hindbrain | Consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance |
| Midbrain | Found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information |
| Forebrain | Consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities |
| Selective attention | Conscious awareness focused on a particular stimulus; minute aspect of all experienced, Example: Cocktail party effect |
| Inattentional blindness | Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere |
| Change blindness | Failing to notice changes in the environment (form of inattentional blindness) |
| Parallel processing | Processing many aspects of a stimulus or problem at once |
| Sequential processing | Processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; new information processing or difficult problem solving |
| Circadian rhythm | Internal biological clock • Altered by age and experience • Night owls versus morning types |
| Tolerance | users develop tolerance as the brain chemistry adapts to offset the drug effect (neuroadaptation). To experience the same effects, users require even larger doses, which increase the risk of addiction and developing a substance use disorder |
| Depressants | Calm neural activity and slow body functions Alcohol use disorder: Marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and drive to continue problematic use • Slowed neural processing • Memory disruption • Reduced self-awareness • Expectancy effects |
| Stimulants | Excite neural activity and speed up body functions; rise in energy and self-confidence |
| Sensation | Process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment |
| Perception | Process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful |
| Absolute threshold | (Fechner): Involves the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time |
| Stress | Process of appraising and responding to a threatening or challenging event |
| Stressors | Catastrophes Significant life changes Daily hassles or pressures |
| Stress response system | Cannon: Fight-or-flight adaptive response Selye: Phase 1: Alarm reaction Phase 2: Resistance Phase 3: Exhaustion |
| Psychoneuroimmunology | Study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health |
| Anger management strategies | Wait. Find healthy distraction or support. Distance yourself. |
| Coping with stress (Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral) | Problem-focused coping • by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor Emotion-focused coping •by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and by attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction |
| External locus of control | Chance or outside forces control fate. Posttraumatic stress symptoms |
| Internal locus of control | People control their own fate. Free will, willpower, and self-control |
| Theories | Explain behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations |
| Hypotheses | Testable predictions Support theory or lead to revision |
| Operational | Precise, measurable definitions of procedures and concepts |
| Replication | Repeat original observations with different participants, materials, circumstances; reliability confidence |
| Preregistration | Public communication of planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses Exploratory research; confirmatory research |
| Meta-analysis | Statistical procedure for analyses of multiple study results, Universal principles |
| Case studies | Suggest fruitful ideas for future research; no generalizations or universal truths |
| Naturalistic observation | Often involves new technology (movement to “big data”) Does not control all factors. Describes and sometimes illuminates, but does not explain behavior |
| Correlation | A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together (how well the factors predict each other). Usually explains only part of the variation among individuals. Uncovers naturally occurring relationships |
| Experiments | enable researchers to isolate the effects of one or more factors. |
| Group | •The experimental group receives treatment. • The control group does not receive treatment. • Random sampling creates a representative survey sample. • Random assignment equalizes the experimental and control groups |
| Double-blind procedure | Experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo |
| Placebo effect | Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent |
| independent variable | in an experiment is manipulated; its effect is being studied |
| confounding variable | A confounding variable is a factor that might influence a study’s results. |
| dependent variable | The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured; it may change when the independent variable is manipulated. |
| Description in psychology | • Surveys and interviews • Ask people to self-report behavior or opinions of particular group; wording effects • Sampling • Representative sample • Random sample • Population |
| Space between axon and dendrite | synaptic gap |
| Autonomic (ANS) system: Controls glands and internal organs | Sympathetic nervous system: Arouses and expends energy Parasympathetic nervous system: Conserves energy as it calms; maintains homeostasis |
| Hippocampus | Seahorse-shaped neural structure; explicit, conscious memory |
| Hypothalamus | Neural system below the thalamus; directs maintenance activities; helps guide the endocrine system via the pituitary gland; emotion and reward |
| Output Motor Cortex | Right hemisphere section controls bodys left side |
| Input Somatosensory Cortex | Left hemisphere section recieves bodys input from the bodys right side |
| Identical (monozygotic) twins | a single fertilized egg splitting into two embryos, making them genetically identical and always the same sex |
| Fraternal (dizygotic) twins | two separate eggs fertilized by two different embryos, resulting in two separate zygotes |
| What affects our sleep patterns? | Genetic influences Cultural, social, and economic influences |
| What affects our sleep patterns? Effects of presence or absence of light on the 24- hour biological clock: | • Light-sensitive retinal proteins • Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) that decreases melatonin production • Chronic state of desynchronization among night-shift workers • Irregular sleep schedules |
| What are sleep’s functions? | Protection Recuperation Restoration and rebuilding of fading day memories Feeding creative thinking Supporting growth |
| Sensory adaptation | Is diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation Aids focus by reducing background chatter Influences how the world is perceived in a personally useful way |
| Perceptual set | Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Set of mental tendencies and assumptions that affects, top-down, what we hear, taste, feel, and see |
| Adaptation level phenomenon | Happiness is relative to our own experience |
| Medulla | Brainstem base; heartbeat and breathing |
| Thalamus | Central control center at the top of the brainstem; directs messages to cortex sensory receiving areas and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla |
| Cerebellum | Little brain at the brainstem rear; processes sensory input, coordinates voluntary movement output and balance, and enables nonverbal learning and memory |
| Brainstem | Oldest part and central brain core; automatic survival functions; crossover point |
| Reticular formation | Nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; controls arousal |
| Amygdala | • Two bean-sized neural clusters; emotions |
| Hypothalamus | Neural system below the thalamus; directs maintenance activities; helps guide the endocrine system via the pituitary gland; emotion and reward |
| Hippocampus | Seahorse-shaped neural structure; explicit, conscious memory |
| neurotransmitters | All do their work at the brain’s synapses. Stimulate, inhibit, or mimic activity of the brain’s own chemical messengers, |
| Descriptive method | a research approach used to observe and describe behaviors and mental processes without manipulating variables |
| Adaptation-level phenomenon | Happiness is relative to our own experience |
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