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BIOL 207 Exam Two
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Metabolism | All chemical reactions and physical workings of the cell. |
| Anabolism | Any process that results in synthesis of molecules into larger macromolecules. |
| Does catabolism or anabolism require energy? | Anabolism |
| Catabolism | Breaks bonds of larger molecules into smaller ones. |
| Does catabolism or anabolism release energy? | Catabolism |
| Enzymes | Catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions. |
| Substrates | Reactant molecules acted on by enzymes. |
| Which is larger: substrates or enzymes? | Enzymes |
| Cofactors | Elements that help bring the active site and substrate closer together in chemical reactions. |
| Examples of Cofactors | Iron, copper, nickel, zinc, etc. |
| Coenzymes | Organic compounds that move a chemical group from one substrate molecule to another. |
| What atoms can coenzymes carry and transfer? | Hydrogen, electrons, carbon dioxide, and amino groups. |
| What two characteristics are substrate and enzyme bonds? | Weak and easily reversible. |
| Three types of metabolic pathways | Cyclic, linear, and branched. |
| Example of Cyclic Metabolic Pathway | The Krebs Cycle |
| Example of Linear Metabolic Pathway | Glycolysis |
| Example of Branched Metabolic Pathway | Amino Acid Synthesis |
| What three parts is ATP made of? | Nitrogen base, 5-carbon sugar, and phosphate group. |
| Catabolic pathways in heterotrophs provide what? | Energy that converts ATP to ADP |
| Net Yield of Aerobic Respiration | 36-38 ATP |
| Net Yield of Anaerobic Respiration | 2-36 ATP |
| Net Yield of Fermentation | 2 ATP |
| Aerobic Respiration | Conversion of glucose to CO2 with the production of ATP. |
| What three processes does aerobic respiration utilize? | Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and the electron transport chain. |
| What hydrogen acceptor/final electron does aerobic respiration utilize? | Free Oxygen |
| Who uses anaerobic respiration? | Organisms who can metabolize without oxygen. |
| What three processes does anaerobic respiration utilize? | Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and the electron transport chain. |
| What final electron acceptors does anaerobic respiration use? | NO3, SO4, CO3, and other oxidized compounds. |
| What is fermentation? | The incomplete oxidation of glucose that does not require oxygen. |
| What final electron acceptor does fermentation utilize? | Organic Compounds |
| What is the main purpose of glycolysis? | To turn glucose into pyruvate. |
| Location of the Krebs Cycle | The cytoplasm of bacteria and mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotes. |
| What happens within the Krebs Cycle? | Begins with acetyl CoA, transfers energy from acetyl CoA to reducing NAD+ and FAD, NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the ETC. |
| The Electron Transport Chain | A chain of redox carriers that receives reduced carriers (NADH and FADH2) generated by glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle. |
| Main Purpose of Electron Transport Chain | Allows the transport of hydrogen ions outside of the membrane. |
| Principle Compounds in ETC | NADH dehydrogenase, flavoproteins, coenzyme Q, and cytochromes. |
| What happens in the ETC in aerobic respiration? | Cytochrome oxidase receives electrons from cytochrome C, picks up hydrogens from solution, and reacts with oxygen to form water. |
| What terminal electron acceptor does fermentation utilize? | Organic compounds like pyruvic acid. |
| When is fermentation used? | When organisms do not have an electron transport chain. |
| Genetics | The study of inheritance or heredity of living things. |
| Genome | Sum total of genetic material in an organism. |
| Most of genome exists in the form of what? | Chromosomes |
| Some of the genome exists in the form of what in the mitochondria/chloroplasts of eukaryotes? | Plasmids |
| Genome of cells are composed entirely of | DNA |
| Genome of viruses are composed of | DNA or RNA |
| Chromosomes | Cellular structure composed of packaged DNA molecules. |
| Prokaryotic Chromosomes | DNA condensed into a packet by histone-like proteins, they look like a singular, circular chromosome. |
| Eukaryotic Chromosomes | DNA wound around a histone protein, located in the nucleus, diploid or haploid, and have a linear appearance. |
| Gene | Segment of DNA that contains code to make a protein or RNA molecule. |
| Three Categories of Genes | Structural genes, RNA machinery, and regulatory genes. |
| Structural Genes | Code for Proteins |
| RNA Machinery Genes | Used in Protein Production |
| Regulatory Genes | Control Gene Expression |
| Genotype | Sum of all alleles; an organisms distinct makeup. |
| Phenotype | Expression of certain traits. |
| What characteristic describes the DNA replication process? | Semiconservative |
| What does semiconservative DNA replication mean? | Each old strand serves as a template for a new strand, producing two complete daughter molecules, who both have one old and one new strand. |
| Where does DNA synthesis start from? | The origin of replication |
| What origins do prokaryotes have and where is it? | Only one; AT-rich segment |
| What origins do eukaryotes have? | Many Origins |
| Initiator Proteins in DNA Synthesis | Untangle and unzip the DNA helix. |
| DNA Polymerase in DNA Synthesis | Starts the synthesis at the replication forks. |
| Replication Forks in DNA Synthesis | Allows synthesis of leading and lagging strand of DNA. |
| What direction is DNA always synthesized from? | 5'-3' |
| What allows continuous DNA synthesis at the leading strand? | DNA Polymerase III |
| Okazaki Fragments | Small fragments of DNA. |
| Makes RNA Primer | RNA Primase |
| DNA Polymerase in DNA Synthesis | Extends primed segments of DNA, making Okazaki Fragments. |
| DNA Ligase in DNA Synthesis | Joins small fragments together at lagging strand. |
| Helicase in DNA Replication | Unzips the DNA helix. |
| Primase in DNA Replication | Synthesizes an RNA primer. |
| DNA Polymerase III in DNA Replication | Adds bases to new DNA chain; proofreads the chain for mistakes. |
| DNA Polymerase I in DNA Replication | Removes primer, closes gaps, and repairs mismatches. |
| Ligase in DNA Replication | Binds nicks in DNA during synthesis and repair. |
| Topoisomerase I and II in DNA Replication | Supercoils and untangles. |
| Central Dogma | The flow of genetic information; DNA to RNA (transcription) to Protein (translation) |
| Transcription | DNA master codes transferred into mRNA codes. |
| Translation | Transcribed RNA used to produce protein. |
| Exceptions to the pattern of transcription and translation | RNA viruses convert RNA to other RNA and Retroviruses convert RNA to DNA |
| What two components does transcription need? | RNA polymerase and a template strand. |
| RNA Polymerase | Large enzyme that converts DNA into RNA |
| Template Strand in Transcription | One strand of DNA that contains instructions for synthesis of a polypeptide. |
| Three types of RNA from transcription | mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA |
| mRNA | Messenger RNA; carries messages from the gene. |
| tRNA | Transfers amino acids from cytosol to ribosomes. |
| rRNA | Platforms for protein synthesis. |
| Three Steps of Translation | Chain initiation, chain elongation, and chain termination. |
| Driving Force of Evolution | Genetic change by mutation. |
| Wild Type | A microorganisms that exhibits a non-mutated characteristic. |
| Mutant Strain | A microorganism that displays variance in a number of categories, suggesting mutation. |
| Spontaneous Mutation | Random changes in DNA coming from errors in replication. |
| Induced Mutation | Result from exposure to known mutagens that disrupt DNA like radiation or chemicals. |
| Point Mutation | Small mutation that affects only a single base on a gene. |
| Silent Mutation | Alters base but not the amino acid. |
| Missense Mutation | Leads to a different amino acid -- creates faulty protein. |
| Examples of Point Mutations | Base-pair substitution or Base-pair deletion/insertion. |
| Nonsense Mutation | Changes a normal codon into a stop codon. |
| Back Mutation | When a gene mutates back to its original base composition. |
| Frameshift Mutation | Occurs when one or more bases are inserted or deleted from a DNA strand. Leads to dramatic effects. |
| Polymerase I and Ligase | Fill in remaining gaps of defective bases. |
| Sterilization | Process that removes or destroys all viable microorganisms. |
| Disinfection | Physical processes or chemical agent that destroys vegetative pathogens but NOT bacterial endospores. |
| Decontamination/Sanitization | Cleansing technique that removes microbes to reduce contamination to safe levels. |
| Antisepsis/Degermination | Reduces number of microbes on the human skin. |
| Common Use of Sterilization | Inanimate objects like surgical instruments or syringes. |
| Common Use of Disinfection | Inanimate objects like food utensils or an examination table. |
| Common Use of Sanitization | Used at restaurants to clean cooking utensils or dishes. |
| Common Use of Antisepsis | Used on skin by scrubbing or immersing in chemicals like alcohol or iodine or surgical hand scrubs. |
| Example of Sterilization Agent | Autoclave, chemical agents. |
| Examples of Disinfection Agents | Bleach, iodine, and heat (boiling). |
| Examples of Decontamination | Soaps, detergents, dish washers. |
| Examples of Antisepsis | Alcohol or iodine wash |
| Most Resistant Microbial Entity | Bacterial Endospores |
| Sepsis | Growth of microorganisms in blood and other tissues. |
| Asepsis | Practice that prevents entry of infectious agents into sterile tissues. |
| Antiseptics | Chemical agnets that are applied directly to exposed body surgfaces to prevent vegetative pathogens. |
| Examples of Antiseptics | Preparing for surgery with iodine compounds, ordinary hand washing with germicidal soap. |
| Bacteristatic | Chemical agents that prevent the growth of bacteria on tissues. |
| Fungistatic | Chemicals that inhibit fungal growth. |
| Microbial Death | Permanent termination of an organism's vital processes. |
| Mode of Action | How does something kill or inhibit the microorganisms? |
| How do agents impact the cell wall? | Blocking synthesis and digesting the cell wall. |
| How do agents impact the cell membrane? | They bind to the lipid layer of the cellular membrane and open it up, allowing bad chemicals to enter. |
| How do agents impact cellular synthesis? | They interrupt synthesis of proteins at the ribosomes. |
| How do agents impact proteins? | They denature proteins which breaks down the protein structure. |
| Examples of Agents that Impact Cell Wall | Chemicals, detergents, and alcohol. |
| Examples of Agents that Impact the Cell Membrane | Detergents |
| Examples of Agents that Impact Cellular Synthesis | Formaldehyde, radiation, and ethylene oxide. |
| Examples of Agents that Impact Proteins | Moist heat, alcohol, and phenolics. |
| Elevated temperatures are... | Microbicidal |
| Lower temperatures are... | Microbistatic |
| Effect of Moist Heat on Microbes | Coagulation and Denaturing of Proteins |
| Effect of Dry Heat on Microbes | Dehydrates the Cell, removing water necessary for metabolic reactions. |
| Moist Heat Methods | Boiling, pasteurization, tyndallization, and the autoclave. |
| Pasteurization | The disinfection of beverages. |
| Tyndallization | Intermittent Sterilization |
| Autoclave | Pressure Cooker |
| Incineration | Most rigorous of all heat treatments -- in a flame. |
| Hot-Air Oven | Dry-heat sterilization, kills endospores. |
| Thermal Death Time | The shortest length of time required to kill all microbes at a specific temperature. |
| Thermal Death Point | The lowest temperature to kill all microbes in a sample in ten minutes. |
| Principal Benefit of Cold Treatment | Slows the growth of cultures and microbes in food. |
| Pathogens able to survive several months in the fridge: | Staph, clostridium, streptococcus, salmonella, and yeasts, molds, and viruses. |
| Lyophilization | Combination of freezing and drying to preserve microorganisms. |
| Two Radiation Methods | Ionizing Radiation and Germicidal Lamps |
| Osmotic Pressure | Adding large amounts of salt or sugar to foods to create a hypertonic environment for bacteria. |
| Example of Osmotic Pressure | Pickling, smoking, and drying foods. |
| Desirable Characteristics of a Microbicidal Chemical | Rapid action, solubility, broad-spectrum, penetrates inanimate surfaces, noncorrosive and non-staining, and affordability. |
| What two chemicals fulfill almost all desirable characteristics of chemicals? | Glutaraldehyde and Hydrogen Peroxide |
| Examples of Sterilizing Agents | Halogens (Chlorine and Iodine), aldehydes, ethylene oxide, phenol, alcohol, detergents, and chlorhexidine. |
| Eubiosis | Healthy individuals have a peaceful coexistence with microbes and a lack of disease. |
| Dysbiosis | The balance of lack of disease tips in favor of disease and microbes. |
| B-frag (Obligate Anaerobe) | Part of the normal microbiota of the human color, can prevent and cure inflammatory diseases like colitis. |
| B. Infantis | Breaks down human milk oligosaccharides into short chain fatty acids that feed on infants' gut cells. |
| Weight Gain in Pregnant Obese Women Findings | Abundance of butyrate-producing bacteria and blood pressure. |
| Pathogen | Microbe whose relationship with its host is parasitic and results in infection and disease. |
| Pathogenicity | An organisms potential to cause infection or death. |
| True Pathogens | Capable of causing disease in healthy persons with normal immune defenses. |
| Virulence | The degree of pathogenicity of a microbe. |
| Virulence Factor | Any characteristic or structure of the microbe contributing to its ability to cause damage and establish in the host. |
| Opportunistic Pathogens | Cause disease when the host's defenses are compromised. |
| Steps of Disease Caused by Microbes | Finding portal of entry, attaching firmly, surviving host defenses, causing disease, and exiting the host. |
| Infectious Dose | The minimum number of microbes necessary to cause an infection to proceed. |
| Adhesive Mechanisms of Attaching to Hosts | Fimbriae, surface proteins, adhesive slimes, specialized receptors, and parasitic worms. |
| Phagocytes | Cells that engulf and destroy host pathogens. |
| Antiphagocytic Factors | Viral factors that help pathogens avoid phagocytes. Ex: Leukocidins that kill phagocytes outright. |
| Three Ways that Microorganisms Cause Damage to Host | Directly through enzymes, directly through toxins, and indirectly through inducing host defenses excessively or inappropriately. |
| Exoenzymes | Enzymes secreted by microbes that break down and inflict damage on tissues. |
| Examples of Exoenzymes | Mucinase, hylauronidase, and coagulase. |
| Mucinase | Digests the protective coating on membranes. |
| Hyaluronidase | Digest the ground substance that cements animal cells together. |
| Coagulase | Causes blood or plasma clotting. |
| Toxin | Chemical product of microbes, plants, and animals that is poisonous to other organisms. |
| Exotoxins | Proteins with a strong specificity for a target cell, affect cells by damaging membrane and initiating lysis. |
| Hemolysins | Disrupt the membrane of red blood cells to release hemoglobin. |
| Endotoxin | Lipopolysaccharide, causes fever, diarrhea, and hemorrhage. |
| Zoonosis | An infection indigenous to animals but naturally transmissible to humans. |
| Nosocomial Infections | Infections acquired or developed during a hospital stay. |
| Most Common Nosocomial Infection | UTI Tract |
| Dessication | The act of dehydrating microbes to preserve them. |
| Aldehyde | An organic substance that contains a -CHO functional group on a terminal carbon. |
| Chlorhexidine kills microbes by | Disrupting the cell wall, denaturing proteins, and disrupting the cell membrane. |
| Glutaraldehyde Affects | Proteins |
| Boiling water is an effective method of | Disinfection |
| Chlorhexidine | Antimicrobial chemical that is a complex organic base, and causes a loss of selective permeability in the cell membrane, disrupts the cell wall, and causes protein denaturation |
| Glutaraldehyde typically kills microbes by | Disrupting enzyme function and disrupting protein activity. |
| Phenolics typically kill microbes by | Inactivating metabolic enzymes, disrupting the cell membrane, and disrupting the cell wall. |
| A chemical that typically kills microbes by producing toxic free radicals is | Hydrogen Peroxide |
| Alcohols that are effective in microbial control are | Isopropyl and Ethyl Alcohols |
| Gases that are commonly used as sterilants or disinfectants are | ethylene oxide and chlorine dioxide |
| Heavy metals typically kill microbes by | Inactivating Proteins |
Created by:
kayleeswilson