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Patho Midterm
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| COPD | debilitating chronic disorders characterized by irreversible, progressive tissue degeneration and airway obstruction |
| Chronic Bronchitis | "Blue Bloaters" ; inflammation of bronchi |
| S/S of Chronic Bronchitis | productive cough, hypoventilation, hypoxemia, cyanosis, hypercapnia, polycythemia, clubbing of fingers, dyspnea at rest, weight gain |
| Emphysema | "Pink Puffers" ; loss of elastic recoil and hyperinflation of the alveoli leading to air trapping |
| S/S of emphysema | dyspnea upon exertion, diminished breath sounds, wheezing, chest tightness, tachypnea, hypoxia, hypercapnia, activity intolerance, BARREL CHESTED |
| Risk factors for COPD | smoking (most common), pollution, chemical irritants, genetic mutation |
| Asthma | chronic disorder that results in intermittent, reversible airway obstruction |
| How is asthma characterized? | acute airway inflammation, broncho-constriction, bronchospasm, bronchiole edema, and mucus production |
| S/S of asthma | wheezing, shortness of breath, dyspnea, chest tightness, cough, tachypnea, anxiety |
| Status Asthmaticus | life-threatening; does not respond to treatment |
| Extrinsic asthma | IgE mediated asthma |
| Intrinsic asthma | asthma that is not an allergic reaction |
| Occupational asthma | asthma stimulus at work |
| Nocturnal asthma | asthma that occurs at night |
| Exercise-induced asthma | asthma that is triggered by exercise |
| Drug-induced asthma | asthma that is triggered by drugs (ex. aspirin) |
| Virus | infection that has more generalized symptoms |
| Bacteria | infection that may present with more localized severe symptoms such as high fever |
| Croup | common viral infection in children; larynx and surrounding areas swell causing airway narrowing, obstruction, and respiratory failure |
| S/S of croup | nasal congestion, SEAL LIKE BARKING COUGH, hoarsness, inspiratory stridor, dyspnea, anxiety, cyanosis |
| Epiglottitis | inflammation of the epiglottis; caused by Hib or throat trauma |
| S/S of epiglottitis | fever, sore throat, difficulty swallowing, DROOLING, inspiratory stridor, central cyanosis |
| Streptococcus pneumoniae | cause of bacterial pneumonia |
| S/S of pneumonia | cough, fatigue, pleuritic pain, dyspnea, fever, chills, crackles or rales, pleural rub, tachypnea, altered mental status, leukocytosis |
| treatment for pneumonia | antibiotics, rest, fluids, pain management |
| Aspiration pneumonia | impaired gag reflex, bad lower esophageal sphincter closure |
| Lobular pneumonia | confined to a single lobe |
| Brochopneumonia | most common; patchy through several lobes |
| Nosocomial pneumonia | hospital acquired |
| community-acquired pneumonia | acquired outside of a healthcare setting |
| Cystic Fibrosis | condition resulting in severe lung damage and nutrition deficits; affects cells that produce mucus, sweat, saliva, and digestive secretions |
| Diagnostics for cystic fibrosis | sweat and stool analysis, chest x-ray, pulmonary function tests, and arterial blood gas |
| Pneumothorax | air in pleural cavity; causes lung to collapse |
| S/S of pneumothorax | sudden dyspnea, chest tightness, tachypnea, decreased breath sounds, asymmetrical chest movement, trachea/mediastinum deviation |
| Treatment for pneumothorax | needle aspiration, chest tube insertion |
| Pulmonary Embolism | a clot that has dislodged and traveled through the venous return to lodge in the pulmonary arteries |
| S/S of a pulmonary embolism | sudden dyspnea, chest pain worsens with breathing, anxiety, dizziness, dysarythmias, palpations, coughing blood |
| Causes of PE | DVT, sedentary lifestyle, smoking, birth control, increase age, pregnancy, obesity |
| Acute | sudden onset |
| chronic | ongoing and last longer than 6 months |
| Clinical manifestations | Signs and symptoms that indicate a specific illness |
| etiology | cause/origins of a disease |
| risk factors | anything that puts a person at a greater risk of developing a particular disease |
| morbidity | condition of suffering from a disease |
| mortality | state of being mortal |
| Substance use disorder | the recurrent use of alcohol, tobacco, nicotine, prescription drugs, or illegal drugs |
| Which organs are involved in regulation of appetite? | hypothalamus |
| Neurobehavioral consequences of poor sleep | mood disorders, attention difficulties, impaired reaction time, decreased memory and concentration |
| Physiological consequences of poor sleep | cardiovascular disease, diabetes, weight gain, pain |
| Selective permeability | ability of the cell wall to allow some substances through the membrane and block others |
| Diffusion | movement of solutes towards lower solute concentrations |
| facilitated diffusion | movement of solutes towards higher concentrations using a carrier molecule |
| osmosis | passive movement of water/solvent across membrane toward higher concentrations |
| active transport | movement against concentration gradient |
| Endocytosis | bringing substance into cell |
| phagocytosis | ingesting bacteria |
| pinocytosis | ingesting liquid |
| Cell proliferation | when cells divide and reproduce |
| Cell differentiation | when cells become specialized |
| Atrophy | Decreased size due to decreased workload |
| Hypertrophy | increased size due to increased workload |
| metaplasia | a pathologic replacement of normal cells with abnormal cells |
| dysplasia | a pathologic mutation of normal cells into abnormal cells |
| apoptosis | programmed cell suicide |
| neoplasm | "new growth", uncontrolled and unregulated |
| Carcinogens | the development of cancer |
| What are the three stages of the cancer growth continuum | Initiation, Promotion, Progression |
| Initiation | introduction of the agent |
| Promotion | initiation of uncontrolled growth |
| Progression | permanent malignant changes |
| benign | slow, progressive, localized, defined, and differentiated; more like host tissue |
| malignant | rapid, metastatic, undifferentiated, and fatal |
| Cleft lip and palate | improper formation of soft tissues in mouth and lips |
| Risk factors of cleft lip and palate | maternal smoking, diabetes, and seizure medication |
| Tay-Sachs disease | normal infancy deteriorates into seizures, rigidity, blindness, and death by 5 |
| Risk factors of Tay-Sachs disease | jewish decent, french canadians, amish and cajuns |
| S/S of Phenylketonuria (PKU) | failure to meet milestones, microcephaly, progressive neurologic decline, learning disabilities |
| Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) | 3 copies of chromosome 21 |
| S/S of Down syndrome | congenital heart defects, single crease palm, white spots on iris, slanted eyes |
| Monosomy X (Turner's syndrome) | result of deletion of all or part of X chromosome ; only affects females |
| S/S of Turner's syndrome | short, lymphedema of hands/feet, broad chest, low set ears, small jaw, drooping eyelids, horseshoe kidney, neck webbing, gonadal streaks instead of ovaries |
| Polysomy X (Klinefelter syndrome) | extra X chromosome ; always male XXY |
| S/S of Klinefelter syndrome | infertility, small genitals, sexual dysfunction, spare facial/body hair, long legs, tall stature, learning disability |
| Marfan syndrome | degenerative generalized disorder of the connective tissues |
| S/S of Marfan syndrome | heart defects, myopia, increased height, long extremities, highly arched palate with crowded teeth, small jaw, thin/narrow face, lens displacement |
| Immunodeficient | diminished or absent immune response; increased vulnerability to opportunistic infections |
| autoimmunity | immune system cannot recognize itself and mounts immune response against self |
| innate immunity | immediate and non specific |
| barriers | first innate approach to keep invaders out |
| Examples of barriers | skin, mucous membranes, fluids/secretions, chemicals, and microbiome |
| inflammatory response | series of reactions triggered by damaged body tissue; nondiscriminatory |
| acute phase | starts immediately; won't stop till threat is eliminated |
| chronic phase | initiated if the acute phase fails to resolve the threat and lasts till healing is complete |
| Signs of the inflammatory response | redness, swelling, heat, pain |
| Pyrogens | molecules that cause systemic inflammatory response; released by macrophages exposed to bacteria; travels to hypothalamus to increase body temp |
| Interferons | small proteins released from virus-infected cells that bind to receptors on the plasma membrane of uninfected cells and inhibits viral replication |
| compliment proteins | circulates in blood; activates when in contact w/ antigens; produce antibodies; use influx of water to cause bacterial cell to burst |
| Adaptive immunity | the body's individual immune system |
| cellular immunity | defend using mediated T-cells which recognize and destroy antigens |
| Suppressor T-cells | turn antibody production off |
| Killer T-cells | cytotoxic cells; destroy infected cells by releasing lymphokines |
| Humoral immunity | B-cells mature in bone marrow and then mature into memory cells of antibodies |
| Active acquired immunity | immunity gained by engaging with antigen ex. invasion/vaccine |
| passive acquired immunity | gained by recieving antibodies made outside the body ex. breastfeeding |
| Type I hypersensitivity | IgE mediaed ex. allergic rhinitis |
| Type II hypersensitivity | Cytotoxic; IgG, IgM mediated; ex. transfusion rxn, hemolytic disease |
| Type III hypersensitivity | Immune complex; IgG mediated |
| Normal range for pH | 7.35-7.45 |
| Normal range for CO2 | 35-45 |
| Normal range for HCO3 | 22-26 |
| Renal mechanisms of compensation | alters excretion or retention of H+ or bicarb; more effective because it permanently removes H+; responds the slowest but lasts the longest |
| Respiratory mechanisms of compensation | manages pH by altering CO2 excretion; responds quickly, but short lived |
| decreases | speeding up respirations will excrete more CO2 which _______ acidity |
| increases | slowing down respirations will excrete less CO2 which _______ acidity |
| Metabolic acidosis | intestinal and renal losses; tissue hypoxia; ketoacidosis; drugs; toxins; renal retention |
| Metabolic alkalosis | increased antacid use; hypochloremia; GI loss; hypokalemia; renal loss; hypovolemia; hyperaldosteronism |
| Respiratory acidosis | hypoventilation; COPD; acute asthma; pulmonary edema; drug overdose |
| Respiratory alkalosis | hyperventilation; anxiety; fever; hypermetabolic states |
| Dilated cardiomyopathy | weakens cardiac contractility and decreases systolic phase; most common; idiopathic; left side HF; ventricles are enlarged, dilated, and weakened |
| Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy | common; ventricles are stiff and unable to relax; sudden cardiac death in young athletes |
| Restrictive cardiomyopathy | ventricles are ridged, but NOT thickened; most often asymptomatic; right sided HF; least common |
| Endocarditis | infection of endocardium and valves |
| Bacteria that causes endocarditis | streptococcus and staphylococcus |
| Risk factors for endocarditis | IV drug use; prosthetics/devices; dental work; valve disorders; congenital defects |
| S/S of endocarditis | flulike symptoms; petechiae; new murmur; splinter hemorrhages under nails |
| Pericarditis | inflammation of pericardium |
| Causes of pericarditis | viral infection; respiratory illness; MI and lupus; thoracic trauma |
| Types of pericarditis | effusion, tamponade, constrictive |
| S/S of pericarditis | chest pain on inspiration; cough; fatigue; friction rub; shortness of breath |
| Causes of left sided HF | infarction of left ventricle, aortic valve stenosis, hypertension, hyperthyroidism |
| Effect of left sided HF | decreased CO2 and pulmonary congestion |
| Manifestations of left sided HF | pulmonary congestion, dyspnea, activity intolerance |
| Compensations for left sided HF | tachycardia, pallor, 2nd polycythemia, daytime ollguria |
| Causes of right sided HF | infarction of right ventricle, pulmonary valve stenosis, pulmonary disease (cor pulmonae) |
| Effect of right sided HF | decreased CO2, systemic congestion |
| Manifestations of right sided HF | edema, weight gain, jugular vein distention, flushed face |
| Common sign of congenital heart problems in infants | murmurs, dyspnea, tachycardia, feeding difficulties, difficulty gain weight |
| Cardiac Output | amount of blood pumped in 1 min |
| Formula for Cardiac output | SV x HR |
| Atherosclerosis | cholesterol-lipid-calcium deposits in walls of major arteries, narrows vessel lumens, reduces blood flow, plaque can crack and release blood clot and block circulation |
| Signs of venous thrombus | Pulse, redness, warm, edema |
| Signs of arterial thrombus | weak/absent pulse, cyanotic, cool, no edema |
| Common cause of thrombi | vascular wall injury, circulatory stasis, hypercoagulable state |
| Erythrocytes | red blood cells |
| hemoglobin | carries oxygen |
| hematocrit | blood volume occupied by erythrocytes |
| thromboplastin | triggers clotting when released from damaged cells lining blood vessels at injury site |
| plasmin | dissolves clots once healing has occurred |
| plasma | liquid protein |
| Leukocytes | white blood cells |
| thrombocytes | platelets |
| hematopoiesis | process of blood formation |
| Polycythemia vera | bone marrow produces too many erythrocytes and sometimes too many WBC/platelets |
| Manifestations of polycythemia vera | (can be asymptomatic for years), cyanosis, pruritis, excessive perspiration, hypertension, tachycardia, dizziness, weakness, dyspnea, headaches, weight loss, visual abnormalities |
| DIC manifestations | angina, confusion, decreased LOC, dyspnea, oliguria, cyanosis, abnormal bleeding, indications of shock |
| DIC | rare and life threatening, tissue exposed to air and triggers coagulation cascade, clots clots clots -> bleeds bleeds bleeds |
| Risk factors for DIC | endothelial cell injury, massive tissue destruction, severe inflammation |
| ITP manifestations | epitaxies, petechia, GI bleeds, mucus/gum bleeds |
| ITP | hypercoagulative state when immune system destroys its own platelets |
| Risk factors for ITP | idiopathic, autoimmune disease, live vaccine, immunodeficiency, viral infections |
| TTP manifestations | pallor, fatigue, weakness, tachycardia, bleeding, organ ischemia, confusion, angina, MI |
| TTP | nonimmunologic platelet destruction |
| Risk factors for TTP | ADAMTS13 gene mutation, females, african americans, medications, pregnancy, HIV, cancer, bone marrow transplants |
| Hyperchromic | Large, dark red RBC |
| Hypochromic | Light red, decreased O2 RBC |
| Microcytic | small RBC |
| Macrocytic | VERY large RBC |
| Iron-deficiency anemia | Erythrocytes become hypochromic and microcytic; supply of Fe does not meet demand of hemoglobin production |
| Pernicious (Megaloblastic) anemia | macrocytic immature erythrocytes; vitamin B12 deficiency |
| Aplastic anemia | lack of normal numbers, but cells are normal in size, shape, and color; bone marrow fails to make enough RBC due to decreased hematopoietic stem cells |
| Hemolytic anemia | excessive destruction (hemolysis) of erythrocytes |
| Thalassemia | erythrocytes appear microcytic, hypochromic, increased iron levels |
| Normal morphology of RBC | biconcave, central pallor, smooth |
| causes of iron-deficiency anemia | decreased consumption of iron, decreased absorption, increased bleeding |
| causes of pernicious anemia | lack of intrinsic factor, autoimmune disease, gastric surgery |
| sickle cell manifestations | presents around 4-5 months; swelling of hands and feet; fever; painful episodes |
| Acute complications of sickle cell | abdominal pain; bone pain; delayed growth; fatigue; jaundice; pallor; tachycardia; angina; excessive thirst; acute chest syndrome; splenic sequestration; stroke |
| risk factors for sickle cell | African Americans; mediterranean; south and central American; caribbean; middle east |
| Triggers for sickle cell | dehydration; stress; extreme temps; increased altitudes; fever |
| Strategies for avoiding painful episodes | O2 therapy, hydration, vaccinations, pain management, infection control measures |
| Sickle Cell anemia | genetic; RBC have crescent shape; abnormal hemoglobin (cannot carry O2 effectively -> pain due to ischemia |
| Type IV hypersensitivity | delayed hypersensitivity; ex. contact dermatitis, infection, allergy |
| IgA | 1st, in linings, blood, saliva, and breast milk; 1st response to invaders |
| IgG | GOAT; most common, long term immunity, specific antibodies, found in blood |
| IgM | iMMediate, found in blood and lymph; 1st antibody made w/ infection |
| IgE | extra; allergic reactions |
| IgD | Dumb, don't know much, cell maturation |
| Hypertonic | more solutes in solution; cell shrinks ex. 3% NS |
| Hypotonic | less solutes in solution; cell swells ex. 0.45% NS |
| Isotonic | equal solutes to solution ex. 0.9% NS |
| Symptoms of hypernatremia | Fatigue, restless (increased excitability), increased reflexes (seizures), extreme thirst, decreased urine output, dry skin, dry mouth |
| Symptoms of hyponatremia | seizures/stupor/confusion, abdominal cramping, lethargic, tendon reflex diminished, loss urine/appetite, orthostatic hypotension, shallow resp., spasms of muscles |
| Sodium | thirst is 1st compensatory mechanisms, imbalance -> seizures |
| Normal level of sodium | 135-145 |
| Normal level of potassium | 3.5-5 |
| symptoms of hyperkalemia | muscle weakness, decreased urine output, resp. failure, decreased cardiac contractibility, early muscle twitching/cramping, rhythm change (peaked T wave) |
| symptoms of hypokalemia | Lethargy/coma, low/shallow RR, lethal cardiac rhythms (U wave), lots of urination, leg cramps, limp muscles, low BP/HR |
| Potassium | pumps heart and muscles, imbalance -> dysrhythmias |
| Normal levels of calcium | 4-5 |
| Calcium | bones and heart, increased Ca=bone cancer, smooth muscle relaxer, muscle contractions |
| symptoms of hypercalcemia | weakness of muscles, EKG changes, absent reflexes, kidney stones |
| symptoms of hypocalcemia | Convulsions, reflexes hyperactive, arthymias, muscle spasms-tetany, postive signs, sensation of tingle/numbness |
| Trousseau's sign | involuntary hand and wrist contraction--indicates hypocalcemia |
| Chvostek's sign | Cheek spasm after tapping the facial nerve--indicates hypocalcemia |
| Normal levels of magnesium | 1.5-2.5 |
| Magnesium | muscle and nerve function |
| symptoms of hypermagnesemia | Lethargic, extended QT segment, diminished tendon reflexes, hypotension, arrhythmia (bradycardia), red hot face, GI (nausea and vomiting), impaired breathing, confusion |
| symptoms of hypomagnesemia | T/C sign, weakness, increased deep tendon reflexes, tetany, calcium and K levels low, hypertension |
Created by:
julie.russell