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Bio ch 1-7
Bio 1 pt 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 5 Unifying themes of Biology | Organization, information, energy and matter, interactions, evolution OR systems biology, emergent properties, inductive reasoning, genomics |
| 7 Properties of Life | Order, energy processing, evolutionary adaption, regulation (constant body temp), growth and development, response to environment, reproduction |
| Biology | the scientific study of life |
| everything that's alive must have | nucleic acid, lipid, protein, carbs |
| reductionism | an approach that reduces complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study |
| levels of organization (small to large) | molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biosphere |
| emergent properties | result from the arrangement and interaction of parts as complexity increases. Can also characterize non biological entities (bike parts --> bike) |
| structure and function | -correlation between the two. -bio structure gives clues about what it does and how it works - knowing the function of something can tell us why |
| cell | smallest unit of organization that can perform all activities required for life |
| Cell Theory | All living organisms are made of cells which are basic units of life (1800s) |
| Prokaryotic Cell | found in tow groups of single cell microorganisms (bacteria and archaea) - lack nucleus or other membrane enclosed organelles -MUCH smaller than eukaryotic |
| Eukaryotic cell | -contains membrane enclosed organelles - found in all other forms of life (plants/animals) |
| DNA | -each chromosome contains one very long dan molecule with hundreds or thousands of genes -genes are units of inheritance - encode info for building the molecules synthesized within the cell |
| Gene expression | process by which the information in a gene directs the manufacture of a cellular product |
| RNA to protein | nucleotides transcribed into mRNA --> protein building blocks (amino acids) --> specific protein with unique shape and function |
| Gene | units of inheritance - encode info for building the molecules synthesized within the cell |
| Genomics | large scale analysis of DNA; study whole sets of genes in one or more species. |
| Genome | entire library of genetic instructions that an org inherits |
| Proteomics | study sets of proteins and their proeprties |
| Proteome | entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell, tissue, or org |
| bioinformatics | use of computational tools to store, org, and analyze the huge volume of data that results from high throughput methods |
| Energy | - chem energy gen by plants and other photosynthetic orgs (producers) is passed along to consumers - flows thru ecosystem in one direction (light --> heat) -skeletal muscles gen heat |
| consumer | animal that feeds on another org or their remians |
| chemicals | -cycle within an ecosystem |
| Chemosynthetic organisms | use chemicals to get their energy. some orgs use iron to get their energy |
| Feedback | -a mechanism for self regulation |
| feedback regulation | the output or product of a process regulates that very process |
| negative feedback | most common form of regulation; responses reduces the initial stimulus (insulin) |
| positive feedback | end product speeds up its own production (blood clotting) |
| ecosystems | an organisms interactions with other organisms and the physical environment |
| evolution | scientific explanation for both the unity and diversity of organisms; concept that living orgs ar modified dependents of common ancestors |
| Three domains of life | bacteria, arches, eukaryotic |
| bacteria | single cell prokaryotic orgs |
| archaea | single cell prokaryotic orgs; love methane |
| eukarya | eukaryotic cells |
| Kingdoms | plantae, fungi, animalia, protists (most numerous and diverse, currently divided into more categories) |
| Darwin | -On the origin of species published Nov 1859 - sp show evidence of decent with modification from common ancestors -nat selection primary cause of descent with modification -explained the duality of unity and diversity |
| 3 observations that lead Darwin to evolution | -individuals in a pop vary in their traits (many seem heritable) - a pop can produce far more offspring than can survive to produce their own -sp generally are suited to their environments |
| natural selection | nat environment constantly selects for propagation of certain traits among nat occurring variant traits in the pop |
| descent with modification | shared anatomy of mammalian limbs reflects the inheritance of the limb structure from a comm ancestor |
| science | derived from latin verb meaning to know |
| inquiry | search for information and explanations of natural phenomena |
| data | recorded observations; items of info on which sci inquiry is based |
| qualitative | descriptions |
| quantitative | numerical |
| inductie reasoning | -important conclusions based on logic - careful observations and data analysis along with generalizations reached by induction are fundamental to our understanding of nature |
| hypothesis | explanation based on observations and assumptions that leads to a testable prediction |
| experiment | sci test carried out under controlled conditions |
| deductive reasoning | uses general premises to make specific predictions |
| sci method | an idealized process of inquiry |
| controlled experiment | one designed to compare an experimental group with a control group |
| variables | both the manipulated and stable factor |
| independent variable | factor being manipulated |
| dependent variable | factor being measured |
| theories | - broader than hypotheses -general enough to spin off many new testable hypotheses -theory is gen supported by grater body of evidence |
| Model org | sp that is easy to grow in a lab and lends itself particularly well to questions being investigated |
| matter | anything that takes up space or has mass |
| element | substance that can not be broken down by chemical reactions |
| compound | substance consisting of two or more elements |
| Percentage required for life | -20-25% of the 92 elements are required for life (essential elements) -carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen make up 96% of living matter -most of the remaining consists of ca, phosphorus, k, sulfur |
| sulfur | required for making proteins |
| radiometric dating | scientists measure the ration of diff isotopes to calculate how many half lives have passed since the fossil or rock was formed |
| terrestrial isopods | -crustaceans: more legs than insects, exoskeleton -arthropods- ani with jointed walking let - have gills and need a moist place to live, but can't live underwater |
| prediction | written as an if... then statement |
| primary reference | research that is peer reviewed and published in a scientific journal |
| Isotopes | two atoms that differ in number of neutrons |
| radioactive isotopes | decay spontaneously giving off particles and energy |
| non polar | atoms share electrons equally (covalent) |
| polar | unequal share of electrons (polar covalent bonds) |
| ionic bonds | atoms sometimes strip electrons from their bonding partners resulting in two oppositely charged atoms |
| Vander waals interactions | electrons are not evenly distributed and may accumulate by chance in one part |
| four properties that facilitate an enviro for life | cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temp, expansion upon freezing, versatility as a solvent, |
| moderation of temp by water | absorbs heat from warmer air and releases stored heat to cooler air |
| calorie | amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g water by 1 degree c |
| specific heat | amt of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance not change its temp by 1 degree c |
| evaporative cooling | as liquid evaporates its remaining surface cools through a process called evaporative cooling |
| Floating of ice on liquid water | ice 10% less dense water reaches greatest density at 4C |
| solution | homogenous mixture of substance |
| solvent | dissolving agent |
| solute | substance being dissolved |
| aqueous solution | water is the solute |
| how acids and bases impact H+ | -Acid = up H+ -Base = down H+ |
| How is the pH of a solution defined | negative log of H+ concentration written as pH=-log [H+] |
| In any aqueous solution at 25ºC, the product of H+ and OH– is constant and can be written as | [H+][OH^-]=10^-14 |
| For a neutral aqueous solution can be defined as | [H+] is 10^-7 so pH=-(-7)=7 |
| buffers | substances that minimize changes in concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution |
| organic chem | -study of compounds that contain carbon, regardless of origin - must have carbon and hydrogen |
| hydrocarbons | organ molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen -Fats have hydrocarbon components - release a large amount of energy |
| Isomers | compounds with the same molecular formula but diff structures and properties |
| structural isomers | diff covalent arrangements of their atoms |
| cis-trans isomers | the same covalent bonds but diff in their spatial arrangement |
| enantiomers | isomers that are mirror images of each other |
| functional groups | -components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chem reactions -hydroxyl , carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl |
| How to draw Hydroxyl | O single bonded to H (H on right of O) |
| How to draw carbonyl | C double bonded to O |
| How to draw carboxyl | O double bonded to C single bonded to O single bonded to H (C shape ) |
| How to draw Amino Group | N single bonded to two O's on its right |
| How to draw a Sulfhydryl group | S single bonded to H |
| How to draw a phosphate group | P in the middle then clockwise starting on the left single bond to O, double bond to O, Single bond to O, single bond to O |
| How to draw a methyl group | C on the left with three H's single bonded to its right |
| ATP | -adenosine triphosphate -organic phosphate made out of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a sting of 3 phosphate groups |
| 4 groups of complex bio molecules | -carbs, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids -must have all 4 to have life |
| macromolecules | large polymers |
| polymer | -long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks -polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction (condensation reaction) |
| monomer | repeating units that serve as building blocks |
| Enzymes | specialized macromolecules that speed up chem reactions such as those that make or break down polymers |
| dehydrated reaction | occurs when 2 monomers bond together thru the loss of a water molecule |
| How to write glucose | C6H12O6 |
| Carbohydrate macromolecules | polysaccharides,, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks |
| glycosidic linkage | bond between two monosaccharides |
| Polysaccharides | -polymers of sugars have storage and structural roles -architecture determined by its sugar monomers and the position of its glycosidic linkages |
| Starch | -storage polysaccharides of plants, consists of glucose monomers -plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts |
| Glycogen | stores polysaccharides in animals (mainly liver and muscles) |
| Structural polysaccharides | cellulose (plant cells), chitin (found n exoskeleton of arthropods) |
| Fats | constructed of two types of smaller molecules : glycerol and fatty acids |
| fatty acid | carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton |
| tricylglycerol | three fatty acids joined to glycerol by an esther linkage |
| saturated fatty acids | -max number of hydrogen atoms possible no double bonds - solid at room temp |
| unsaturated fatty acids | -have one or more double bonds - liquid at room temp |
| hydrogenation | process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen |
| phospholipids | -two fatty acids in a phosphate group are attached to a glycerol -hydrophilic head ; hydrophobic tail (make a little sandwich with heads outside, tails inside) |
| steroids | lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four focused rings |
| cholesterol | type of steroid that is a component in animal cell membrane and a precursor from which other steroids are synthesized |
| Protein functions | defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and structural support |
| Enzymes | proteins that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions |
| protein construction | constructed from the same set of 21 amino acids |
| polypeptide | unbranched polymers built from these amino acids -The bond between amino acids is a peptide bond |
| Amino acids | organic molecules with amino and carboxyl groups |
| denaturation | a chemical or physical property causes the protein to unravel |
| 4 Levels of protein structure | 1st structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids 2nd=coils and folds in the polypeptide chain 3rd= determined by interactions among various side chains (overall shape) 4th= protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains (hemoglobin) |
| sickle cell disease | -inherited blood disorder resulting from a single amino acid sub in the protein hemoglobin -causes the red blood cells to aggregate into chains and to deform into sickle shape -evolved in africa to prevent malaria -Japanese used knotweed to combat |
| what determines protein structure | alterations in ph, salt concentration, temp, or other enviro factors can cause to unravel |
| amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by what | genes |
| Role of nucleic acids | -2 types DNA and RNA -DNA provides directions for its own replication -DNA makes mRNA which goes to ribosome and proteins are made -each gene along a DNA molecule directs synthesis of mRNA |
| nucleic acids | - are polymers called polynucleotides - each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides - each nucleotide consists of nitrogenous base, sugar, phosphate groups |
| nucleoside | nitrogenous base + sugar |
| two families of nitrogenous bases | -pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, uracil) have a single six membered ring -purines (adenine and guanine) have a six membered ring fused to a five member ring -In DNA the sugar is deoxyribose ; RNA the sugar is ribose |
| Structures of DNA and RNA Molecules | -DNA molecules have two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis forming a double helix -backbones run opposite 5’—>3’ directions from each other (antiparallel) (ACGT;A always with T and C with G) -RNA is single stranded (T is replied by U) |
| bioinformatics | uses computer software and other computational tools to deal with the data resulting from sequencing many genomes |
| genomics | analyzing large sets of genes or even comparing whole genomes of diff species |
| proteomics | similar analysis of large sets of proteins inc their sequences |
| light microscope | visible light is passed through the specimen and then through glass lenses |
| organelles | membrane enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells |
| electron microscope | focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto its surface |
| scanning electron microscope | -useful for detailed study of the topography of a specimen -scans surface of sample, coated with a thin film of gold; beam excited electrons,these electrons are detected by device tht translates pattern of electrons into electronic signal sent to screen |
| Transmission electron microscope | -used to study internal structure of cells. -specimen stained with heavy metals |
| cytology | study of cell structure |
| Cell Fractionation | takes apart cells and separates major organelles and other sub cellular structures from one another |
| differential centrifugation | spins test tubes holding mixtures of disrupted cells at a series of increasing speeds. At each speed the resulting force causes a subset of the cell components to settle at the bottom of the tube forming a pellet |
| all cells have | plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes, cytoplasm, plasma membrane |
| plasma membrane | functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients, wastes to service the entire cell |
| cytosol | jellylike substance in which subcellular components are suspended |
| chromosomes | carry genes in the form of DNA |
| ribosomes | tiny complexes that make proteins according to instructions from the genes |
| cytoplasm | - interior of the cell -in eukaryotic it is only the area between the nucleus and the plasma membrane |
| Eukaryotic cell | -DNA is in the nucleus which is bounded by a double membrane -Eukaryotic means “true nucleus” -organelles are suspended in cytosol |
| Prokaryotic cell | -DNA is concentrated in the nucleoid — not membrane enclosed -Prokaryotic means “before nucleus” -some contain regions surrounded by proteins where specific reactions take place |
| microvilli | increase cell surface area without an appreciable increase in volume |
| The nucleus | -contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell. -usually most conspicuous organelle |
| nuclear envelope | -encloses the nucleus; double membrane each a lipid bilayer with associated proteins -perforated by pore structures |
| pore complex | lines each pore and plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of proteins and RNAs and macromolecules |
| nuclear lamina | - lines nuclear side of the envelope except where the pores are -netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope |
| chromosomes | structures that carry genetic info |
| chromatin | complex of DNA and proteins making up chromosomes |
| nucleolus | ribosomal RNA is synthesized from genes in DNA; also proteins are imported from the cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into large and small subunits of ribosomes |
| Ribosomes | complexes made of ribosomal RNAs and proteins are the cellular components that carry out protein synthesis |
| free ribosomes | suspended in cytosol |
| bound ribosomes | attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope |
| endomembrane system | -includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles and vacuoles, plasma membrane |
| Functiions of the endomembrane system | synthesizes proteins, transport of proteins into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids, detox of poisons |
| vesicles | sacs made of membrane |
| endoplasmic reticulum | -extensive network of membranes that accounts for more than half the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells -separates the internal compartment (lumen) from the cytosol |
| smooth ER | - outer surface lacks ribosomes -synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbs, detox drugs/poison, storage of calcium ions |
| rough ER | - studded with ribosomes on the outer surface of the membrane and appears rough through the electron microscope - contains glycoproteins and transport vesicles |
| glycoproteins | proteins with carbs covalently bonded to them |
| The golgi apparatus | -warehouse for receiving, sorting, shipping, manufacturing -consists of a group of associated, flattened, membranous sacs (cisternae) - cis and trans face act respectively as shipping and recieving |
| Lysosomes | -membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that many eukaryotic cells use to digest macromolecules (work best in acid) |
| phagocytosis | -amoebas and many other unicellular protists eat by engulfing smaller orgs/food particles -forms a food vacuole —> fuses with a lysosome whose enzymes digest the food -produces simple sugars, amino acids, monomers which become cell nutrients |
| autophagy | a damaged organelle or a small amount of cytosol becomes surrounded by a double membrane and a lysosome fuses with the outer membrane of this vesicle |
| Vacuoles | large vesicles derived from the ER and golgi apparatus |
| food vacuoles | formed by phagocytosis |
| contractile vacuoles | pump excess water out of a cell |
| central vacuole | develops by the coalescence of smaller vacuoles |
| Endomembrane system1-3 | 1. Nuclear envelope connect2rough ER, + continuous within smooth ER 2. Membranes+proteins made by ER mve by transport vesicles2 golgi 3. golgi pinches off transport vesicles+ other vesicles tht make lysosomes other types of specialized vesicles/vacuoles |
| Endomembrane system 4-6 | 4. lysosome is avail for fusion with another vesicle4digestion 5. transport vesicle carries proteins to plasma membrane4secretion 6. plasma membrane expands fusion of vesicles proteins secreted from cell by exocytosis |
| Mitochondria | are the sites of cellular respiration |
| cellular respiration | metabolic process that uses oxygen to drive the generation of ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels |
| chloroplasts | sites of photosynthesis |
| evolutionary origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts | endosymbiont theory - early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen using non photosynthetic prokaryotic cell>engulfed cell formed relationship with host> endosymbiont > single org in which the endosymbiont becomes the mitochondria |
| endosymbiont | a cell living within another cell |
| cristae | infoldings on the inner membrane |
| mitochondrial matrix | enclosed by the inner membrane |
| Chloroplasts | contain chlorophyll along with enzymes and other molecules that function in the photosynthetic production of sugar |
| thylakoids | membranous system inside the chloroplast in the form of flattened interconnected sacs |
| granum | stack of thylakoid (looks like poker chips) |
| stroma | fluid outside the thylakoids which contains the chloroplasts DNA and ribosomes as well as many enzymes |
| chloroplast space divided into three compartments: | inter membrane space, stroma, thylakoid space |
| plastids | family of closely related plant organelles |
| amloplast | colorless organelle that stores starch |
| chromoplast | pigments that give fruits and flowers their orange and yellow hues |
| peroxisome | -specialized metabolic compartment bonded by a single membrane -ains enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various substrates and transfer them to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct |
| what can peroxisome do | break fatty acids down, detox alcohol |
| cytoskeleton | network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm |
| motor proteins | cell motility requires interaction of cytoskeleton with these |
| Microtubules | - thickest -hollow rod constructed from globular proteins called tubulins -each tubulin protein a dimer (molecule made up of two components) -shape and support the cell and serve as tracks along which organelles equipped with motor proteins can move |
| microfilaments | thinnest |
| intermediate filaments | -fibers with diameters in the middle range -only found in the cells of some animals -specialized for bearing tension -more permanent fixtures of cells (keratin) |
| centrosome | - region located near the nucleus -in animal cells microtubules grow out of this -these microtubules function as compression resisting girders of the cytoskeleton |
| Centrioles | laced within centrosome, composed of 9 sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring |
| cilla and flagella | - cellular extensions, contain microtubules -locomotor appendages |
| Cilium | cilium may also act as a signal receiving antenna for the cell — crucial to brain function and embryonic development each motile cilium or flagellum has a group of microtubules sheathed in an extension of plasma membrane |
| basal body | microtubule assembly of a cilium or flagellum is anchored by this |
| dyneins | motor proteins that are attached along each other microtubule doublet “walk” using two “feet” |
| Microfilaments | solid thin rods |
| actin | globular protein that makes up microfilaments |
| cortex | outer cytoplasmic layer of a cell |
| myosin | a protein that makes up actin filaments and thicker filaments |
| pseudopodia | cell crawls along a surface by extending these cellular extensions |
| cytoplasmic streaming | circular flow of cytoplasm within cells |
| cell wall | - extracellular structure of plant cells -protects the cell, maintains shape, prevents excessive uptake of water |
| what is the cell wall made by | microfibrils made of polysaccharide cellulose are synthesized by an enzyme called cellulose synthase and secreted into the extracellular space where they become embedded in a matrix of other polysaccharides and proteins |
| primary cell wall | young plant cell first secretes a relatively thin and flexible wall |
| middle lamella | -glues adjacent cells together; located between primary walls of adjacent cells -thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectins |
| Secondary cell wall | - between the plasma membrane and the primary wall -strong and durable matrix that affords the cell protection and support (wood) |
| Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of animal cells | made of glycoproteins and other carbohydrate containing molecules secreted by the cells |
| collagen | most abundant; forms strong fibers outside the cells |
| proteoglycans | woven network that holds the collagen fibers |
| Fibronectin | a glycoprotein that attaches some cells to the ECM |
| Integrins | fibronectin and other ECM proteins bind to these cell surface receptor proteins that are built into the plasma membrane |
| plasmodesmata | - channels that connect cells -join most of the plant into one living continuum |
| amphipathic | it has both a hydrophilic and hydrophobic region (phospholipid) |
| fluid mosaic model | membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids |
| Fluidity of membranes | -membrane is held together mainly by hydrophobic interactions -cholesterol = “fluidity buffer” resisting changes in membrane fluidity that can be caused by changes in temperature |
| evolution of differences in membrane lipid composition | in plants that tolerate extreme cold the percentage of unsaturated phospholipids increases in autumn (keeps membranes from solidifying) |
| membrane proteins and their functions | phospholipids form the main fabric of the membrane, but proteins determine most of the membranes functions |
| integral proteins | - penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer -hydrophobic regions consist of one or more stretches of non polar amino acids |
| transmembrane proteins | span the membrane; other integral proteins extend only partway into the hydrophobic interior |
| Peripheral proteins | not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all; they are loosely bound to the surface of the membrane often to exposed parts of integral proteins |
| cell-cell recognition | -a cells ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another -sorts cells into tissues and organs/ basis for immune system |
| glycolipids | membrane carbohydrates bonded to lipids |
| glycoproteins | membrane carbohydrates bonded to proteins |
| selective permeability | allows some substances to cross more easily than others |
| The permeability of the lipid bilayer | -non polar molecules are hydrophobic -they can all dissolve in the lipid bilayer of the membrane and cross it easily -hydrophobic interior impedes direct passage |
| transport proteins | -channel proteins, aquaporins, carrier proteins - specific for the substance it moves allowing only certain substances to cross the membrane |
| channel proteins | function by having a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions use as a tunnel though the membrane |
| aquaporins | facilitate the passage of water molecules though the membrane |
| carrier proteins | hold on to their passengers and change shape in a way that shuttles them across the membrane |
| diffusion | -movement of particles of any substance so they spread out into avail space -spontaneous process needing no input of energy |
| Concentration gradient | region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases (tend to decrease) |
| Passive transport | diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane |
| osmosis | the diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane |
| tonicity | the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water |
| Water balance of cells without cell walls | - cell with no cell wall immersed in isotonic eniro there will be no movement of water across plasma membane (water equilibrium) -if shell transferred to hypertonic solution it will lose water - hypotonic water will drown it |
| osmoregulation | control of solute concentrations and water balance |
| turgor pressure | cell wall exerting pressure back on expansion caused by water infiltrating the cell |
| turgid | very firm |
| plasmolysis | plant cell shrivels, its plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall and the plant shrivels |
| facilitated diffusion | passive diffusion with the help of transport proteins that span the membrane |
| ion channels | channel proteins that transport ions |
| gated channels | open or close in response to stimulus (electrical, chemical) |
| active transport | requires energy; pumps a solution across a membrane against its gradient (all carrier proteins NOT channel proteins) |
| sodium potassium pump | exchanges Na+ for K+ across the plasma membrane of animal cells |
| Voltage | electrical potential energy (all cells have across their plasma membranes) |
| membrane potential | -voltage across a membrane ranging from -50 to -200 millivolts -inside of cell is negative compared to outside |
| electrochemical gradient | combo of chemical and electrical forces acting on an ion |
| electrogenic pump | transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane |
| proton pump | main electrogenic pump of plants , fungi, and bacteria which actively transports protons out of the cell |
| Cotransport | a transport protein can couple the “downhill” diffusion of the solute to the “uphill” transport of a second substance against its own concentration gradient |
| Exocytosis | -the cell secretes certain molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane |
| flow of exocytosis | transport vesicle buds from Golgi moves along microtubule of cytoskeleton to plasma membrane->specific proteins in both membrane rearrange lipid molecules of2bilayers, fuse -> contents of vesicle spill out +vesicle membrane becomes part of plasma membrane |
| Endocytosis | -the cell takes in molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane -small area of plasma membrane sinks into a pocket —> pocket deepens, pinches in, forming a vesicle containing material that had been outside the cell |
| similarities that support endosymbiont theory | -enveloped in double membrane -contain free ribosomes and circular DNA -grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells |
| glyoxysomes | - found in fat storing tissues of plant seeds -contain enzymes that initiate conversion of fatty acids to sugar which the emerging seedling uses as a source of energy and carbon until it can produce its own sugar by photosynthesis |
| Which scientific study is an example of a systems biology approach | measuring the effect of an invading insect that eats oak leaves on the numbers of oak trees and, subsequently, on the number and types of decomposer fungi in the soil |
| systems biology | an approach to studying biology that aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the systems parts |
| Chloroplasts receiving instructions from the nucleus is an example from what level of biological organization? | organelle |
| What do elements with atomic numbers 6, 14, and 22 have in common? | same number of valence electrons and will form the same number of covalent bonds |
| What type of bond is very prevalent in lipids and gives lipids their hydrophobic properties? | nonpolar covalent |
| What would an electron holding extra energy be useful for? | a)powering a biochemical process that requires energy b) storing energy for a time |
| You find a bacterium growing in pure oil, containing the usual hydrophobic lipids. This organism must be very good at breaking down _____. | nonpolar covalent bonds |
| A person carefully walking on a slippery sidewalk is most like which kind of bond? | hydrogen |
| Which of the following is a trace element in the human body? | P |
| Which of the following indirectly determines the bonds that an atom can form? | protons |
| What are the four emergent properties of water that are important for life? | cohesion, moderation of temperature, expansion upon freezing, solvent properties |
| Skin is coated with a hydrophobic glycolipid. What would happen if this glycolipid were not present? | a)Water would be lost from skin cells more quickly. b) Skin would swell when swimming |
| Compared to an acidic solution at pH 5, a basic solution at pH 8 has _____. | 1,000 times fewer hydrogen ions |
| Which of the following acts as a pH buffer in blood? | a) carbonic acid b) bicarbonate ion |
| If you were working with a protein that needed a certain pH to work, what would you need in the solution containing the protein | buffer |
| If you were a fish in a pond in the winter in Minnesota, for what property of water would you be most grateful? | hydrogen bonding |
| Which of the following explains how a pool of water can crack a boulder sitting in it during freezing weather? | expansion of water when it freezes |
| You are looking at your dinner plate and see small circles in the aqueous meat juices on your plate. What word best applies to the circles? | hydrophobic |
| What was the first organic molecule to be synthesized in the laboratory? | urea |
| What type of chemical bond joins a functional group to the carbon skeleton of a large molecule? | covalent bond |
| functional groups found n biological organic molecules | amino, hydroxyl, carboxyl, phosphate |
| Which functional group behaves as an acid in organic molecules? | carboxyl |
| Which functional group behaves as a base in organic molecules? | amino |
| What type of isomer is propanal compared to acetone? | structural isomer |
| Which type of molecule may contain sulfhydryl groups? | protein |
| What kind of bond would be present in a completely flat section of a biological molecule? | b) double bond c) triple bond |
| You could describe enantiomers by analogy with which part(s) of your body? | your two feet |
| The disappearance of which functional group would most adversely affect protein shape? | sulfhydryl |
| © 2021 Pearson Education, Inc. If you swapped a methyl group for every phosphate group in a DNA molecule, | the molecule would fall apart |
| what functional group is most important for cellular energy | phosphate |
| Which of the following can carbon-based molecules do because of the versatile bond structures formed by carbon? | a) make three-dimensional shapes b) branch c) have mirror-image versions |
| What kinds of biological molecules were Miller and Urey able to produce abiotically? | a) amino acids b) hydrocarbons c) formaldehyde d) hydrogen cyanide |
| Polymers are made of monomer subunits that are joined by what type of bonds? | covalent |
| Which polysaccharide has the greatest number of branches? | glycogen |
| A polysaccharide you are studying contains unbranched β glucose molecules and cannot be digested by humans. Which polysaccharide are you studying? | cellulose |
| Lipids cannot be considered polymers because | they are not composed of monomer subunits |
| all lipids | do not dissolve in water well |
| Sickle-cell disease is caused by a mutation in hemoglobin that changes a charged amino acid to a hydrophobic amino acid. Where in the protein would you expect to find this charged amino acid? | on the exterior surface of the protein |
| How does RNA differ from DNA? | DNA contains thymine; RNA contains uracil |
| If you heat a cell to a moderately higher temperature than it is normally used to, which molecule will stop working first? | protein |
| If you were designing a cell to store a large amount of energy, which molecule(s) would you pack into it? | lipid and carbohydrate |
| © 2021 Pearson Education, Inc. If you wanted to extract the heaviest component of a membrane, you would need a protocol to extract | phospholipids |
| If you wanted to design a new industrial catalyst based on something biological, which molecule would you use? | protein |
| If you substituted alanine for glycine in a protein, how much change to the protein’s structure would you expect? | little change, since these are both hydrophobic amino acids |
| Which structure is common to all three domains of life? | phospholipid bilayer, cell membrane |
| Where are enzymes responsible for biosynthesis of membrane lipids located? | endoplasmic reticulum |
| Which protein is not made at the rough ER? | a protein that enters the nucleus to bind with DNA |
| What is the correct order of the exocytosis or secretion pathway? | rough ER, Golgi apparatus, transport vesicle, plasma membrane |
| Alcohol is destroyed in the cell by the removal of hydrogen atoms. Where does this occur? | peroxisome |
| Taxol, a drug approved for the treatment of breast cancer, prevents depolymerization of microtubules. With what cellular function might Taxol interfere? | chromosome movements in cell division |
| Many types of polysaccharides (such as glucosamine, chondroitin, and hyaluronate) are sold in health food and grocery stores to help reduce pain and increase flexibility in the joints. They are molecules that make up _____ | teh extracellular matrix |
| If you were fractionating cells using centrifugation and mixed up your fractions, what would you look for to identify the first fraction collected? | nuclei |
| What kind of cell would you be examining if you identified fimbriae | bacterial |
| If you were using compartment-specific stains and found that a stain for the nuclear envelope lightly stained another compartment as well, what would that other compartment be? | endoplasmic reticulum |
| If you were studying mutant cells and found that many proteins are going to the wrong compartments in these cells, where is the mutation having the greatest effect? | golgi apparatus |
| A large plant cell will have proportionally a large amount of which protein? | myosin |
| Which best describes a biological membrane? | two layers of phospholipids with proteins either spanning the layers or on the surface of the layers |
| Which amino acid would most likely be present in the outer side of a transmembrane domain of an integral membrane protein? | a hydrophobic amino acid like valine |
| Which molecule will diffuse most quickly across a lipid bilayer membrane? | O2 |
| Cells such as bacteria are taken up by other cells such as white blood cells by which mechanism? | phagocytosis |
| An artificial liposome, whose membrane contains no proteins, is loaded with a 0.03 M sucrose solution and put into pure water. Which best describes what will quickly happen? | Water will diffuse down its concentration gradient into the liposome, causing it to burst |
| A correct distinction between facilitated diffusion and active transport is that | acilitated diffusion depends on an existing energy gradient acting on the transported substance, while active transport makes such a gradient. |
| Receptor-mediated endocytosis produces vesicles that | carry macromolecules and cells for delivery to the lysosomal compartment. |
| A cell that has a contractile vacuole is likely, at times, to have | too much water |
| You are studying a pump protein in the lab. What should you order to make sure that the pump will operate? | ATP |
| You are studying a unicellular eukaryote recently discovered in pond water, and you notice that it contains many coated vesicles. Immunological studies show that the vesicles mostly lack transmembrane proteins. These cells probably do a lot of | pinocytosis |
| pinocytosis | a cell engulfs extracellular fluids |
| Which part of the cell is most crucial for getting membrane proteins to their proper location? | golgi apparatus |
| At a cocktail party with people moving around a large room, the doors to the room are like _____ | membrane proteins |
| After an hour, a freshwater unicellular eukaryote dropped into seawater will be | plasmolyzed |
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