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Child Psych test 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| How many Genes in the Body | 20-something thousands |
| Chromosomes | rodlike structures |
| How many pairs of Chromosomes in every cell | 23, one in each pair for each parent |
| Genes are made of | DNA |
| Genes serve the body by initiating | the synthesis of chemical building blocks - Proteins that originate with genetic instructions are released into the child’s cells - Their effects depend partly on the child’s health and activity |
| Universal genes are | identical or similar across children |
| Variable genes | determine specific characteristics (tall or short, stocky or thin, emotionally agreeable or combative, and more) |
| Gametes | reproductive cells (sperm and ova); only 23 chromosomes each |
| Gametes are created in | meiosis |
| meiosis | -create cells able to unite and form a new organism, one with genes from both parents -cell duplication; zygote grows, adding more cells |
| Fertilization | union of sperm and ovum at conception |
| regulatory genes | Shared human traits Give the same instructions to everyone Play important role in developmental process (motor skills, language proficiency, reasoning, and more) |
| Sensitive periods: | development depends on environmental exposure |
| Individual traits: | gene pairs associated with physical characteristics Dominant genes override recessive genes |
| Complexities | codominance; polygenic inheritance; multifactorial traits |
| Codominance | Sickle cell disease |
| Polygenic inheritance: | many genes add separate small effects to a complex characteristic |
| Multifactorial traits: | many genes work together with environmental factors in the manifestation of a characteristic |
| Genes and Environment as Interactive Guides to Growth | Direct effects: temperament |
| Gene-environment interaction: | certain environment affect children selectively, based on their genes, physiological conditions, and maturational stages – the hardy child |
| Gene-environment alignment | Passive gene-environment correlation Evocative reaction Active gene-environment correlation |
| Passive gene-environment correlation: | parents pass on genes that foster a talent or disposition |
| Evocative reaction | characteristics affect how other people respond to them |
| Active gene-environment correlation | alter their surroundings to achieve their needs (niche) |
| Chromosomal conditions: | Down syndrome, extra 21st chromosome |
| Single-gene conditions: | forms of fragile X syndrome |
| Epigenetic changes to the activation of genes | Long-lasting modifications to the switches that turn genes on and off MAOA gene and stress Changes to the activation of genes are generated by a wide range of circumstances (nutrition, exercise, sleep, stress, etc.) |
| autism spectrum disorders | A complex combination of factors that redirect prenatal brain development in areas that would typically be set up to permit meaningful processing of social cognition, social skills, and social interaction |
| Prenatal Development | 3 Phases of Prenatal Growth Zygote conception - 2 weeks post Embryo 2 weeks - 8 weeks Fetus 8 weeks - birth |
| Development of Zygote | Begins at conception chromosomes combine to form zygote Mitosis occurs Attaches to uterine wall Separates into embryo & placenta Releases hormones telling body to cease menstruation Cells begin to specialize nervous system, brain |
| Development of Embryo p1 | Life support system formed placenta grows larger, stronger, and more refined umbilical cord develops provides food, liquid, oxygen; removes waste secretes hormones to sustain embryonic growth |
| Development of Embryo p2 (Basic body structures develop) | A small head is distinguishable from the body, and tiny buds that will become arms and legs are just beginning to sprout fingers and toes Internal organs differentiate out of nearby tissues and mature into functioning body parts ex.Brain |
| Growth occurs from | top to bottom from inside to outside |
| Development of Fetus: Third month | Head is large but growing slowly Eyes move into place; increasingly human-looking Genitalia form Reflex and muscular movement (although not felt) |
| Development of Fetus: Fourth month | Rapid growth in length (height) Slow weight increase Hair growth on head and eyebrows |
| Development of Fetus: Fifth month | Rapid growth in length (height) continues Fine hair growth covers body Movement felt by mother |
| Development of Fetus: sixth month | Skin red, wrinkled; body lean; fingernails evident Development of respiratory & central nervous system |
| Development of Fetus: seventh month | Eyes open; eyelashes and toenails form Body fills out |
| Development of Fetus: eighth month | Skin becomes pink, smooth; fat grows beneath skin Testes descend (in males) |
| Final development of fetus | During the final weeks of prenatal development, the fetus finishes it basic body structures and puts on weight, steadily as birth approaches |
| Healthy Pregnancies | Begins before pregnancy w/ parents’ self-care Address existing health problems Prenatal care during pregnancy Focus on mental health: anxiety and depression physical activity (5 times a week for 30 min) Avoid exposure to teratogens ex. Alcohol |
| Ultrasound examination: | routine check for age of fetus and detection of multiple fetuses or major abnormalities |
| Noninvasive blood tests and other tests: | performed when certain conditions are suspected |
| Corrective surgeries: | performed in rare circumstances |
| Ultrasound | (24 weeks) Can be used as early as 4 or 5 weeks after conception Useful to determine the date of conception (predict the due date more accurately), showing the position of the fetus and placenta in the uterus, can show gross physical deformities |
| Amniocentesis | 15th – 20th week Detect genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities |
| Chorionic Villus Sampling | 5th – 10th week Detect genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities |
| Supporting Parents, Protecting Babies | Encourage women to evaluate health before pregnancy Urge pregnant women to seek medical care Advise pregnant women about nutritional requirements and relevant programs |
| Childbirth classes | Prepared Childbirth Classes Select location and participants family, midwife, doula, alternative therapist Determine method of controlling pain |
| The Birth Process | In the days immediately before labor: Baby descends into pelvis Mother may experience Rush of energy Weight loss (1 to 4 pounds) Vaginal secretions Difficulty sleeping - mother’s hormonal changes & maturation of fetus |
| the birth process | As pregnancy advances, Braxton Hicks contractions begin (exercise the uterine muscles without causing the cervix to open) Fetus settles in head-downward position Caesarean delivery if breech or sideways Contractions widen the cervix opening |
| Stages of Labor | 1 stage regular contractions widening of cervix pelvis and back pain 2 stage cervix dilated (10 centimeter) baby proceeds down birth canal 3 stage afterbirth expelled by uterus (placenta & fetal membranes) 4 stage mother’s body readjusts |
| Induced labor: | start it artificially (e.g., Pitocin – hormone that stimulates contractions) |
| Analgesics | epidural analgesia (spinal injection) |
| Anesthetics | Caesarean delivery |
| Born early | (“premature”) Before the end of week 37 Risk of breathing problems, anemia, brain hemorrhages, feeding problems, instability in temperature |
| Born small for date | Possible neurological deficiencies, structural problems with body parts, difficulty with breathing & vision Often due to exposure to teratogens or chromosomal abnormalities |
| Kangaroo Care LBW | 2-3hrs/day of skin-to-skin contact Stabilize heartbeat, temperature, breathing, sleep-wake cycles |
| Massage Therapy LBW | Increased weight gain, muscle development,neurological dev. Earlier discharge from hospital |
| Isolette LBW | covered sterile chamber that provides oxygen and a controlled temperature Protects infant from infections Even with assistance, LBW infants are at risk developmentally |
| Adjustment of Parents After Birth | Time-consuming Rapid hormone changes for the mother Postpartum depression Persistent sadness; feelings of worthlessness, fatigue, pessimism, and worry about providing adequate care |
| Infant’s need for responsive care may go unheeded | Child at risk for developing mental health problems such as anxiety and conduct disorder |
| Sensation | the infant’s detection of a stimulus Touch - a newborn may sense a father’s stroking movements on her hand |
| Perception | when infants attend to and interpret a sensation Vision – show preference for looking at faces and explore the visual properties of objects Auditory – show preference for human voices – especially mother’s voice |
| States of arousal: | sleeping and wakefulness infants experience throughout the days Newborns sleep up to 16 hours a day REM sleep |
| Reflexes | automatic movement patterns in response to stimuli when infants attend to and interpret a sensation |
| Some examples of reflexes | Rooting and sucking - prompt infants to engage adaptively with the world – bring sustenance Blinking – protects the infant from bright light Grasping and stepping – prepare for basic physical movements Some reflexes disappear with maturation - sucking |
| Principles of Growth | Different body parts mature at different rates Functioning becomes increasingly differentiated Functioning becomes increasingly integrated Each child follows a unique growth curve (target ranges) |
| Principles of Growth p2 | Change is both qualitative and quantitative Children’s health is affected by involvement in a multilayered environment |
| Developmental Periods | Infancy: birth to age 2 Early childhood: 2–6 years Middle childhood: 6–10 years Early adolescence: 10–14 years Late adolescence: 14–18 years |
| Infancy (Birth–Age 2) | Rapid growth; reflexes begin at birth (breathing) Cephalocaudal trend: vertical order of emerging skills Proceeding from head downward Proximodistal trend: inside-to-outside Adults meet infants’ needs by carefully observing |
| Cephalocaudal trend: | vertical order of emerging skills |
| Proximodistal trend: | inside-to-outside pattern of growth |
| Early Childhood (Ages 2–6) | Gross motor skills: running, jumping, tumbling, hopping Fine motor skills: drawing, writing, cutting with scissors Some easier for girls than boys |
| Middle Childhood (Ages 6–10) | Gains in height and body weight; more gradual growth Lose their 20 primary teeth Girls mature somewhat more quickly than boys Steady gains in physical capabilities and fine motor skills Increasing sensitivity about their physical appearance |
| Early Adolescence (Ages 10–14) | Beginning of puberty; growth spurt Maturational processes guided by genes (hormone releases) Girls begin puberty between ages 8 and 13 Menarche before age 15 Boys begin puberty between ages 9 and 14 Spermarche around age 13 or 14 |
| puberty; | growth spurt |
| Menarche | First menstrual period in an adolescent female. |
| Spermarche | First ejaculation in an adolescent male. |
| Late Adolescence (Ages 14–18) | End of growth spurt: girls at age 15; boys at age 17 (on average) More personal choices about diet, activities, use of time Concern for risky, impulsive behaviors (experimenting with alcohol, drugs, tobacco, sex) |
| Food insecurity: | no consistent access to nutritious food Effects include weakness, inattention, asthma, anemia, and other health problems in children |
| What precent of youth is overweight | 17% of U.S. children |
| Eating disorders: | anorexia nervosa, bulimia, binge eating |
| Distorted body image leads to; | psychological problems (depression, anxiety) |
| anorexia nervosa | Eating disorder in which a person eats little or nothing for weeks or months and seriously jeopardizes personal health. |
| bulimia | Eating disorder in which a person, in an attempt to be thin, eats a large amount of food, and then purposefully purges it from the body by vomiting or taking laxatives. |
| binge eating | Condition in which people eat excessively large quantities of food (to the point of uneasiness) over a couple of hours and feel ashamed afterwards; binging repeats once or more monthly. |
| Promoting Good Nutrition | Make children’s health a priority Offer nourishing food at school Provide between-meal snacks for young children |
| Rough and tumble play | Running and tackling (chasing after a ball) |
| Physical Activity | Motivation for physical activity during infancy and toddlerhood Increasingly controlled physical activity in preschool years Decline in physical activity after preschool Need opportunities to move in the classroom-benefit from physical education |
| Physical education | Avoid unhealthy competition and excessive pressure to perform well |
| Rest and sleep | Prenatal Development Fetuses cycle between wakeful periods and sleep. Most of their time is spent asleep. Infancy Newborns sleep 16 - 18 hours / day Risk of sudden infant death syndrome Early childhood through adolescence Amount of sleep decreases |
| Risk of sudden infant death syndrome | Death of an infant in the first year of life, typically during sleep, that cannot be explained by a thorough medical examination; the risk of SIDS is highest between 2 and 4 months of age |
| Cigarettes and vaping: | health risks such as lung disease, dependency |
| Alcohol and drug use: | serious threats to adolescents’ health May develop addiction and lack self-control to stop Opioids (tried by one-third of high school students) Account for 70% of deaths from drug use |
| Sexual activity: | concerns about pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (S T I s), H I V, and AIDS |
| Chronic medical conditions | Allergies, asthma, epilepsy, heart condition, blood disorder, migraines, hearing impairments, vision problems, cystic fibrosis, and more Challenge children’s academic learning and adjustment Essential services provided by school health teams |
| Concussion | Traumatic brain injuries may require therapy and curriculum modifications |
| Physical disabilities | Often involve adaptations and assistive devices at school |
| Two kinds of cells: | neurons and glia |
| Neurons | cell that transmits information to other cells |
| Axon | arm-like part of neuron that sends chemicals to other neurons |
| Dendrite | branchlike part of neuron; receives info from other neurons |
| Synapses | junctions between two neurons |
| Glial cells: | perform numerous functions |
| Circuits or networks: | groups of neurons specialized in certain functions |
| Oligodendrocytes - Myelin sheath: | fatty sheath around neurons |
| Astrocytes: | regulate blood flow to the brain |
| Hindbrain | Controls basic processes that sustain survival Breathing, blood pressure, sleep, arousal, balance, movement Parts: Ponds, Cerebellum, Medulla |
| Midbrain | Connects the hindbrain to the forebrain and acts as a relay station between the two |
| Forebrain | Produces complex thinking, emotional responses, and motivation Matures over a period of two decades Parts: Cortex, Limbic System, Thalamus, Hypothalamus |
| Limbic system: | supports essential behaviors for survival, including feeding, reproduction, and fight or flight |
| Sensorimotor system: | connects areas that register sensations with movements, and it detects motion and position of the head and body |
| Visual system: | helps make sense of information perceived by the eyes and interprets it as meaningful images |
| Auditory system: | converts sound vibrations in the ears into interpretable auditory input, including the source of the sound |
| Default system: | connects the areas of the brain that create a resting condition, in which daydreaming is possible |
| Attention system: | supports an intentional focus on something |
| Salient system: | is responsible for selecting an immediate situation for attention to and the marshalling of mental resources for a task |
| Central executive: | deliberative processes involving sustained attention to solving a problem and inhibiting inappropriate reactions that distract from the solution |
| Language system: | process how sounds are sequenced and heard or read, their meaning, the production of speech and the organization of words into meaningful sentences |
| Prenatal developmental changes in the brain | formation of basic parts Sensitive period |
| Sensitive period | A period in development when certain environmental experiences have a more pronounced influence than is true at other times. |
| Infancy and early childhood developmental changes in the brain: | rapid growth planning, setting priorities, focusing attention, juggling multiple tasks, and solving problems when obstacles arise |
| Synaptogenesis | A process in brain development whereby many new synapses appear during the first few years of life. |
| synaptic pruning | A process in brain development whereby many previously formed synapses wither away, especially if they have not been used frequently. |
| myelination | The growth of a fatty sheath around neurons that allows them to transmit messages quickly. |
| executive functions | Purposeful and goal-directed intellectual processes (e.g., planning, decision making) made possible by higher brain structures. |
| Middle childhood developmental changes in the brain: | networks supporting memory and emotion ability to regulate emotions |
| Adolescence developmental changes in the brain: | cortex continues to change More efficient brains, able to consider multiple ideas simultaneously Increased impulsivity as parts of brain mature at different rates |
| malformations | Unusual networks or distorted structures in the brain |
| Irregularities in Brain Development can be caused by | Genes, viral infections, malnutrition, birth complications, teratogens |
| Down syndrome: | born with brains that weigh less, small frontal lobes |
| Schizophrenia: | thought disorders, hallucinations (causes not fully understood) |
| Applications of Research on Brain Development | Nurture the skills that brains are eager to acquire (sensitive period). Help children who have been abused to form warm, trusting, and stable relationships. Pay attention to the initiative that children of a particular age display. |
| Jean Piaget (1896–1980) | Swiss psychologist Constructivist perspective |
| Constructivist perspective: | children create knowledge rather than passively absorb it |
| Key Ideas in Piaget’s Theory | Children are energetic learners. Children organize what they learn into cohesive understandings. Children adapt to new information Equilibration generates increasingly advanced thinking. Interaction with other people |
| Schemes | types of actions or thoughts children use in response to the environment |
| Operations | mental processes |
| Assimilation | fitting new information into current scheme |
| Accommodation | revising or abandoning scheme to account for new information |
| Equilibrium: | Children comfortably address new situations using their existing schemes and operations. |
| Disequilibrium: | Mental “discomfort” |
| Equilibration: | The process of moving from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to equilibrium |
| Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | Sensorimotor (Begins at birth) Preoperational (Appears at about age 2) Concrete operational (Appears at about age 6 or 7) Formal operational (Appears at about age 11 or 12) They are hierarchical and Universal to a degree |
| Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development are (2) | Stages are hierarchical Stages are universal to a degree |
| Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - Age 2) | Begins with reflexes & sensorimotor schemes Goal-directed behavior emerges Object permanence emerges Symbolic thought emerges |
| Object permanence | Realization that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. |
| Symbolic thought | The ability to mentally represent and think about external objects and events |
| reflexes & sensorimotor schemes | Those automatic movement patterns in response to stimuli Types of actions or thoughts that they use repeatedly in response to the environment. |
| Preoperational Stage | Symbolic representation Limited mental manipulation (operations) Egocentrism Failure to conserve Age 2 to about age 6 or 7 Preoperational children struggle with both conservation and class inclusion |
| Symbolic representation | |
| Egocentrism | inability to view situations from another person’s perspective |
| Conservation | The recognition that an amount must stay the same if nothing is added or taken away despite changes in shape or arrangement. ex. Water in different glasses |
| Class inclusion: | The recognition that an object can belong both to a particular category and to one of its subcategories simultaneously. ex. Blue Flowers, Red Flowers, Both Flowers |
| Concrete Operational Stage | Some mental manipulation & logical thought Can conserve Conservation of weight, age 9 or 10 Some mental manipulation & logical thought Difficulty with abstract and counterfactual ideas Can handle concrete ideas Age 6-7 years until 11-12 years |
| abstract and counterfactual ideas | hypothetical ideas? |
| concrete ideas | logical thinking? |
| Formal Operational Stage | Abstract & scientific reasoning Hypothetical-deductive reasoning Formulate hypotheses Separate and control variables ex. Pendulum problem More idealism |
| More idealism | adolescents envision how the world might be different from, and possibly better than, the way it is now |
| stages don’t accurately represent children’s cognitive -development | Children adapt their reasoning according to interests, prior knowledge, experience, and the task at hand |
| Three programs of research show that children leverage information selectively to guide their learning | Babies are born with imprints in the brain that guide their attention Adaptive learning occurs during language developmentAdaptive learning can be found in infants’ physical exploration |
| Key Ideas in Neo-Piagetian Theories | Cognitive development is constrained by neurologically-based information-processing mechanisms. Children acquire new knowledge through unintentional & intentional learning processes(unconscious learning) Organize their thinking for specific topics |
| Conceptual structures: | integrated networks of thoughts and skills within certain domains |
| Adults who are inspired by Piaget and his advocates have tried these specific strategies: | Indulge children’s curiosity Let children play Provide opportunities for experimentation with physical objects |
| Vygotsky’s Theory | 1896–1934) Professor in special education and educational psychology Looked for learning frameworks that would help all children Emphasized importance of adult guidance in cognitive advancement |
| Sociocultural theory: | focused on children’s learning through practice in meaningful tasks with other people |
| Mediation: | The process of helping children make sense of experiences in culturally appropriate ways. |
| Cognitive tools: | Tools that are partly or entirely symbolic. Every culture has some |
| Self-talk: | When thought and language first merge, children often talk to themselves. |
| Inner speech: | When children speak to themselves mentally |
| Internalization: | The process through which social activities evolve into internal mental activities. |
| Appropriation: | The process of internalizing but also selectively implementing some skills rather than others and adapting the strategies of one’s culture for personal use. |
| kinds of Play | Play allows children to stretch themselves cognitively. Sociodramatic play: Play where children practice complementary roles. |
| Key ideas in vygotskys theory | Children can perform more challenging tasks when assisted by advanced helpers. Zone of Proximal Development (Z P D): The range of tasks that children cannot perform independently yet can perform with guidance from adults ring-cant do -> can do in center |
| Social construction of meaning | Co-constructed through conversation between adult and child or among siblings and friends |
| Mediated learning experience: | helps the child make better sense of the world through joint discussions about mutual experiences |
| Scaffolding | Guidance from adults and experienced peers to help children perform tasks in their Z P D |
| Reciprocal teaching (Brown & Palincsar, 1987): | improvement in reading comprehension skills |
Created by:
natalieeash