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AP Psych Unit 3
Development and Learning Terms
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Developmental Psychology | branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social changes through the life-span |
| Zygote | fertilized egg, enters 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into embryo |
| Embryo | the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through 2nd month |
| Fetus | the developing human organism about 9 weeks after conception |
| Teratogens | chemicals and viruses that reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and can cause harm |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) | condition caused by alcohol exposure during pregnancy and can result in physical, behavioral, and cognitive disabilities in a child |
| Apgar Test | assessment of newborn's physical condition immediately after birth |
| Maturation | biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience |
| Infantile Amnesia | inability to recall memories to prior to 3rd birthday |
| Stages of Morality: Preconventional | (before 9) rights and wrongs are determined by the consequences of actions, focuses on reward (what's in it for me?) |
| Stages of Morality: Conventional | (early adolescence) begin to internalize societal norms and expectations, focuses on being a "good" person |
| Stages of Morality: Postconventional | (adolescence and beyond) understanding of social contracts and individual rights, moral decisions are based on self-chosen universal principles |
| Cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| Schemas | concept or framework that organizes and interprets information |
| Assimilation | interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas |
| Accommodation | adapting our current understanding(schema) to incorporate new information |
| Object Permanence | awareness that things continue to exist even if not perceived |
| Conservation | principle that properties (mass, volume, number) remain same despite changes in forms of objects |
| Egocentric | inability to take another person's point of view |
| Theory of Mind | people's ideas about their own and others mental states about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behaviors these might predict |
| Piaget Theory (1: Sensorimotor Stage) | use of senses to explore, and use of motor skills to learn; very active looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping |
| Piaget Theory (2: Preoperational Stage) | perception is key, the mental operations (imagining an action and mentally reversing it) are unable to be performed |
| Piaget Theory (3: Concrete Operational Stage) | children gain mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events |
| Piaget Theory (4: Formal Operational Stage) | stage during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts |
| Language | our spoken, written, or signed words the ways the we combine them to communicate meaning |
| Phonemes | smallest distinctive sound unit |
| Morphemes | the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word |
| Grammar | system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others |
| Babbling Stage | beginning around 4 months, stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated |
| One-Word Stage | most speaking done in single words |
| Two-Word Stage | stage development during which child speaks in two word statements |
| Telegraphic Speech | speech using mostly nouns and verbs |
| Aphasia | the impairment of language ,usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impaired speaking) or Wernicke's Area (impaired understanding) |
| Linguistic Determination | hypothesis that language determines way we think |
| Microsystems | groups that have direct contact with individuals (family, friends, teachers, peers) |
| Mesosystem | the relationships between groups in microsystem (interaction between school and family, peers, and friends |
| Exosystem | indirect factors in an individual's life (social context in which a person lives. Government policy, mass media. Ex: access to adequate healthcare influences development) |
| Macrosystem | cultural events that affect individuals and others around them (norms, customs, traditions, values) |
| Chronosystem | individuals current stage of life (outermost circle, how time and events over time affect development) |
| Authoritarian | impose rules, expect obedience |
| Permissive | submit to desires of children, make few demands, use little punishment |
| Authoritative | demanding and responsive. use of rules but also explanations as to why, allows open discussion and dialogue |
| Stranger Anxiety | the fear of strangers that infants display |
| Attachment | emotional tie with another person, shown in young children by seeking closeness with caregiver and show distress on separation |
| Critical Period | an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development |
| Imprinting | the process by which animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period |
| Temperament | a persons characteristics, emotional reactivity, and intensity |
| Basic Trust | a sense of the world is predictable and reliable, trusting parents fostered trusting children |
| Self Concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, answers "who am I?" |
| Identity | our sense of self |
| Trust vs. Mistrust | |
| Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt | |
| Initiative vs. Guilt | |
| Industry vs. Inferiority | |
| Identity vs. Role Confusion | |
| Intimacy vs. Isolation | |
| Identity vs. Role Confusion | |
| Intimacy vs. Isolation | |
| Generativity vs. Stagnation | |
| Integrity vs. Despair | |
| Learning | the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors |
| Associative Learning | learning that certain events occur together, events may be two stimuli or a response and it's consequences |
| Stimulus | any event or situation that evokes a response |
| Cognitive Learning | the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language |
| Behaviorism | view that psychology should be 1) objective, 2) study behavior, without reference to mental processes |
| Neutral Stimulus | stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning |
| Unconditioned Response | an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus |
| Unconditioned Stimulus | a stimulus that unconditionally, naturally and automatically, triggers a response |
| Conditioned Response | a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus |
| Conditioned Stimulus | an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| Acquisition | initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response |
| Higher-Order Conditioning | procedure in which CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus |
| Operant Conditioning | type of learning in which behavior is strengthened followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
| Law of Effect | principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
| Operant Chamber | chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar or pressing or key pecking |
| Reinforcement | any event that strengthens (increase the frequency of) the behavior it follows |
| Shaping | operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
| Discriminative Stimulus | a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement |
| Positive Reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that when presented after a response, strengthens the response |
| Negative Reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. any stimulus that when removed after a response, strengthens the response |
| Continuous Reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
| Partial Reinforcement | reinforcing only the part of the time, results in slower acquisition of response, but much greater resistance to extinction |
| Fixed-Ratio Schedules | this reinforces response only after a specified number of responses |
| Variable-Ratio Schedule | schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
| Observational Learning | learning by observing others (aka social learning), mostly found in higher order thinking animals (humans especially) |
| Modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
| Primary Reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
| Conditioned Reinforcer | stimuli that gain its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer |
| Punishment | event that tends to decrease behavior that it follows |
| Positive Punishment | administering an aversive stimulus (using a spray bottle on a cat, giving traffic ticket for speeding) |
| Negative Punishment | withdrawing a rewarding stimulus (taking away phone, losing drivers license because of too many tickets |
| Prosocial Behavior | positive constructive, helpful behavior |
| Antisocial Effects | observed learning leads to negative, possibly destructive behavior |
| Insight Learning | when solution to problem occurs without any association, consequences or model being present |
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