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VM602 Q2/Final HISTO
VM 602 Finals HISTO
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the major anatomical regions of a long bone and what tissue connects them? | Epiphysis at the ends, diaphysis in the shaft, joined at the metaphysis. |
| How do compact and spongy (cancellous) bone differ histologically and functionally? | Compact bone has osteons, dense structure; spongy bone has trabeculae and marrow spaces. |
| What structures are found in periosteum and endosteum and how do they differ? | Periosteum has outer dense CT and inner osteogenic layer; endosteum is loose CT lining canals/spaces. |
| What are the two main types of bone marrow and their primary functions? | Red marrow for hematopoiesis; yellow marrow for fat storage. |
| What cellular lineages give rise to osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts? | Osteoblasts/osteocytes from mesenchymal stem cells; osteoclasts from monocyte lineage. |
| What are the main features of osteocytes and how do they communicate? | Mature cells trapped in matrix, sit in lacunae, connected by canaliculi using gap junctions. |
| What are osteoblasts and where are they located on bone? | Bone-forming cells from mesenchymal stem cells; found lining bone surfaces. |
| What are osteoclasts, their origin, and what regulates them? | Multinucleated bone-resorbing cells from monocytes; stimulated by PTH, inhibited by calcitonin. |
| What are the organic and inorganic components of the bone matrix? | Organic: type I collagen, ground substance; inorganic: calcium phosphate as hydroxyapatite. |
| What structures make up the osteon and how are they organized? | Central canal with vessels, lamellae rings, lacunae with osteocytes, canaliculi for communication. |
| How does intramembranous ossification differ from endochondral ossification? | Intramembranous: flat bones, mesenchymal directly to bone; Endochondral: long bones, cartilage model replaced. |
| What are the main histological zones of the epiphyseal growth plate? | Resting, proliferative, hypertrophic, calcification, ossification. |
| What is the function of PTH and calcitonin in bone remodeling? | PTH stimulates osteoclast activity; calcitonin inhibits it. |
| What are the main cells of cartilage and their functions? | Chondroblasts build matrix, chondrocytes maintain matrix, chondroclasts resorb cartilage. |
| What is found in the matrix of cartilage and what fiber type predominates? | Type II collagen fibers and proteoglycan-rich ground substance (firm, gel-like). |
| What is the perichondrium, its layers, and its presence across cartilage types? | Dense CT with outer fibroblasts and inner chondrogenic cells; absent in articular and fibrous cartilage. |
| What are lacunae and isogenous groups in cartilage histology? | Lacunae house single chondrocytes; isogenous groups are clusters from mitotic division. |
| What is the difference between territorial and interterritorial cartilage matrix? | Territorial surrounds chondrocytes, dark basophilic; interterritorial lighter between groups. |
| What are the key features and functions of hyaline cartilage? | Most common, type II collagen, proteoglycans; forms growth plates and articular surfaces. |
| What are the key features and functions of elastic cartilage? | Type II collagen plus elastic fibers; provides flexible support in ear, epiglottis, eustachian tube. |
| What are the key features and functions of fibrous cartilage? | Type II and type I collagen; resembles dense CT, lacks perichondrium; found in discs, pubic symphysis. |
| How do chondrocytes, osteocytes, and fibroblasts differ morphologically? | Chondrocytes round in lacunae, osteocytes flattened in bone lacunae, fibroblasts spindle-shaped in CT. |
| How do chondroclasts compare to osteoclasts? | Both are multinucleated resorptive cells; osteoclasts resorb bone, chondroclasts resorb cartilage. |
| How are nutrients delivered in bone versus cartilage? | Bone has blood vessels in canals; cartilage is avascular, nutrients diffuse through matrix. |
| What are the three major cellular constituents of peripheral blood and their main roles? | RBCs carry O₂/CO₂, WBCs mediate immune defense, platelets enable clotting. |
| How is cytology staining for blood smears different from standard histopathology staining? | Uses Romanowsky-type stains (Wright, Giemsa) with eosin+methylene blue, no hematoxylin. |
| What is the erythron, and what key RBC parameters can be interpreted from it? | Erythron = all RBCs; parameters include size (anisocytosis), shape (poikilocytosis), and maturity (reticulocytes). |
| What is anisocytosis in RBC evaluation and what does it indicate clinically? | Variation in RBC size, may indicate anemia or systemic disease. |
| What is poikilocytosis in RBC evaluation and what conditions may cause it? | Variation in RBC shape; can be due to vitamin deficiency, disease, or normal in deer/goats. |
| What is rouleaux formation in RBCs and in which animals is it normal? | Stacked coin-like RBCs; normal in cats and horses, pathologic with high plasma proteins or dehydration. |
| What is the difference between reticulocytes and mature RBCs? | Reticulocytes are immature, still contain RNA/ribosomes; mature RBCs are anucleate (except avian). |
| What WBCs are agranulocytes and what are their functions? | Lymphocytes (B/T, viral/cancer defense) and monocytes (phagocytic, precursors to macrophages, osteoclasts, etc). |
| What WBCs are granulocytes and what are their main functions? | Neutrophils (bacteria, first responders), eosinophils (parasites/allergies), basophils (allergy, rare). |
| How do band neutrophils differ from segmented neutrophils? | Band = immature, U/C-shaped nucleus; segmented = mature, multilobed nucleus. |
| What are lymphocytes, their morphology, and functions? | Round nucleus, little cytoplasm; B cells produce antibodies, T cells mediate cellular immunity. |
| What are monocytes, their morphology, and functions? | Largest WBC, horseshoe nucleus, vacuoles; phagocytic, differentiate into macrophages, microglia, osteoclasts. |
| What are neutrophils, their morphology, and their main role? | Segmented nucleus, pale cytoplasm; phagocytose bacteria, first responders. |
| What are eosinophils, their morphology, and their main role? | Bilobed nucleus, red granules; respond to parasites and allergies. |
| What are basophils, their morphology, and their main role? | Rare, S-shaped nucleus obscured by purple granules; release histamine/heparin in allergies. |
| What are platelets in mammals and what is their function? | Cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes, function in clotting. |
| What are thrombocytes in birds and how do they differ from mammalian platelets? | True nucleated cells, perform clotting functions similar to platelets. |
| What terms describe low or high WBC counts and cancer of blood cells? | Leukopenia = low WBC, leukocytosis = high WBC, leukemia = neoplastic proliferation. |
| What would high lymphocyte counts (~40% WBCs) suggest clinically? | Likely viral infection or antigenic stimulation. |
| What would high neutrophil counts (~80% WBCs) suggest clinically? | Likely bacterial infection or acute inflammation. |
| What would high eosinophil counts (~15% WBCs) suggest clinically? | Likely parasitic infection or allergy. |
| What would high basophil counts (~5% WBCs) suggest clinically? | Likely strong allergic reaction or hypersensitivity. |
| What are the two main types of bone marrow and their functions? | Red marrow = hematopoiesis; yellow marrow = fat storage. |
| What is a promegakaryocyte and what is its role in marrow histology? | Large precursor cell in marrow; produces platelets by cytoplasmic fragmentation. |
| What is the function of bone marrow as a whole in the skeletal system? | Site of blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) and immune cell maturation. |
| What is the role of the innate immune system and when does it act? | First defense, rapid, protects in first hours until adaptive immunity develops. |
| What are the major components of the innate immune system? | Barriers, macrophages, dendritic cells, NK cells, complement. |
| How do epithelial surfaces contribute to innate defense? | Block entry with skin, mucus, cilia. |
| How do macrophages recognize and destroy pathogens? | Toll-like receptors bind microbes; macrophages phagocytose. |
| What molecules do macrophages release and what is their function? | Cytokines; recruit leukocytes, dilate vessels, cause fever, activate T cells. |
| How do macrophages link innate and adaptive immunity? | Present antigens to T cells. |
| What is the role of dendritic cells in immunity? | Capture antigens, migrate to lymph nodes, activate T cells. |
| Where are dendritic cells located? | Skin, nose, lungs, stomach, intestines. |
| What is the function of natural killer (NK) cells? | Kill virus-infected and cancer cells. |
| How does the adaptive immune system differ from innate? | Slower, highly specific, memory. |
| What are the two main types of adaptive immune responses? | Cell-mediated (T cells) and antibody (B cells). |
| How do T and B cells functionally differ? | T cells kill/help; B cells make antibodies. |
| What is an antibody and how is it structured? | Y-shaped immunoglobulin from plasma cells; binds antigens tightly. |
| What is an antigen? | Any molecule provoking immune response. |
| Which lymphatic organs are primary and what occurs there? | Bone marrow (T/B precursors, B mature); thymus (T mature). |
| Which lymphatic organs are secondary and what occurs there? | Lymph nodes, spleen, appendix, MALT; immune responses. |
| What are reticular cells and where are they found? | Support cells making type III collagen in all lymphatic organs except thymus. |
| What are epithelioreticular cells and where are they found? | Thymic nursing/support cells, form barrier and corpuscles. |
| Where is the thymus located and what is its function? | Front of heart; T cell maturation. |
| What is the organization of the thymus? | Encapsulated; cortex = immature, medulla = mature T cells. |
| How do thymocytes mature in the thymus? | Proliferate in cortex, mature in medulla, weak ones destroyed. |
| What is the blood-thymus barrier and its function? | Endothelium, pericytes, epithelioreticular cells; protect developing T cells. |
| What are tingible body macrophages? | Macrophages digesting dying T cells. |
| What are Hassall’s corpuscles and where are they located? | Epithelial cell aggregates in thymic medulla. |
| What defines diffuse lymphatic tissue compared to lymph nodes or thymus? | Unencapsulated lymphocytes/macrophages in CT or nodules. |
| What is MALT and its subtypes? | Mucosa lymph tissue; GALT (ileum), BALT (lung), NALT (tonsils). |
| What is the structure and function of tonsils? | Epithelial nodules with germinal centers; capture antigens, trigger response. |
| What is the mantle zone of a tonsillar follicle? | Outer ring of quiescent B cells. |
| What are germinal centers in lymphatic follicles? | Lighter areas of proliferating B lymphoblasts. |
| What is the B-cell lineage from quiescent to antibody-secreting? | B lymphocyte → B lymphoblast → plasma cell. |
| What are Peyer’s patches and where are they found? | GALT nodules in ileum for antigen capture. |
| What are M cells and what is their role? | Specialized epithelial cells delivering antigens to immune cells. |
| How do M cells activate adaptive immunity? | Antigen to macrophages/dendritic cells → T/B activation. |
| What are common features of MALT, BALT, and GALT? | No capsule, efferent only, antigen capture at mucosa. |
| What regions of the body lack lymphatic capillaries, and why is this significant for immune surveillance and fluid balance? | Absent in bone marrow, CNS, and avascular tissues like epidermis; prevents local drainage. |
| What are the three essential functions of lymphatic vessels in the body in terms of immune defense, fluid regulation, and nutrient absorption? | Filter lymph, return interstitial fluid, absorb fats/vitamins. |
| How do lymphatic vessels compare to blood vessels in the type of fluid they carry and the immune elements they transport to lymph nodes? | Blood carries RBCs and antigens; lymph carries lymph fluid and WBCs. |
| What directional terms describe lymph flow into and out of lymphatic organs, and what prevents backflow? | Afferent in, efferent out; valves prevent backflow. |
| What structures make up the capsule and framework of lymph nodes and what is their function in supporting immune cells? | Connective tissue capsule, subcapsular sinus, reticular cells, fibroblasts; provide structure and filtration. |
| Which region of the lymph node contains lymphoid follicles, what cells dominate here, and what histological change occurs during infection? | Cortex; B-cells; germinal centers form. |
| What process do B-cells undergo in germinal centers and what is their ultimate role once they migrate to the medulla? | Differentiate into plasma cells; secrete antibodies. |
| Which lymph node region surrounds the nodules, is considered the T-cell zone, and contains reticular cells and macrophages? | Paracortex; T-cell zone. |
| What is found in the medulla of a lymph node, and how does it function in immune defense and lymph filtration? | Cords and sinuses with lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages; final filtration. |
| What is the precise flow of lymph once it enters a node until it exits through efferent vessels? | Afferent → subcapsular sinus → cortical → paracortical → medullary sinuses → efferent. |
| How do white blood cells gain entry into lymph nodes if not through afferent lymphatics? | Via post-capillary venules. |
| What unique feature distinguishes pig lymph nodes from other mammals in terms of structural architecture? | Inverted: nodules in center, sinuses outside. |
| What are the five major functions of the spleen in filtering blood, recycling cells, and supporting immunity? | Filter blood, remove RBCs, recycle iron, store blood cells, house lymphocytes. |
| What is the composition of the spleen’s capsule and trabeculae, and what additional structures are carried within them? | Dense irregular CT with collagen, elastin, smooth muscle; vessels and nerves. |
| What is a central artery in the spleen, how does it form, and what lymphoid tissue surrounds it? | Artery coated with T-cells; surrounded by PALS. |
| What is meant by “open circulation” in the spleen, and how does this process allow for quality control of red blood cells? | Blood leaves sheathed capillaries into cords; defective RBCs removed by macrophages. |
| What are the two main structural components of red pulp in the spleen and how do they contribute to its functions? | Splenic sinuses and cords; filter RBCs, house immune cells. |
| What cells are common in splenic cords and what pigment do macrophages often contain that signals iron recycling? | Macrophages; hemosiderin pigment. |
| What defines white pulp in the spleen, what immune cell types dominate here, and how are regions arranged around central arteries? | T-cell PALS, B-cell follicles with germinal centers, mantle and marginal zones. |
| What is a key difference in lymphatic drainage between lymph nodes and the spleen regarding afferent and efferent vessels? | Spleen only has efferent vessels. |
| What is the general difference between endocrine and exocrine glands, specifically how each releases its secretions, whether ducts are present, and how this difference would appear on histological section? | Endocrine ductless, secrete to blood. Exocrine ducts, secrete to surface. |
| Which organs are entirely endocrine in function compared to those that contain endocrine portions only, and what are examples of each? | Entire: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal. Portions: islets pancreas, Leydig testis. |
| How do peptide hormones and steroid hormones differ in terms of solubility in blood, need for carrier proteins, receptor location, and speed of signaling? | Peptide soluble, surface receptors, fast. Steroid need carriers, nuclear receptors, slow. |
| What is the structural organization of the pituitary gland into anterior, intermediate, and posterior regions, and what general types of cells or tissues predominate in each? | Anterior epithelial, Intermediate basophils MSH, Posterior neural axons + pituicytes. |
| What is the developmental origin of the anterior pituitary versus the posterior pituitary, and how does this explain their differences in secretory control mechanisms? | Anterior oral ectoderm portal hormones, Posterior neural axons release ADH/oxytocin. |
| Which three cell types make up the anterior pituitary (pars distalis), what percentage of cells do they represent, and which hormones do they produce? | Acidophils GH/Prl, Basophils TSH/FSH/LH/ACTH, Chromophobes resting. |
| How is hormone release from the anterior pituitary controlled by the hypothalamus compared to the posterior pituitary? | Anterior via portal hormones, Posterior via axonal release of ADH/oxytocin. |
| What is the histological organization of the pars intermedia, which hormone is secreted, and by what predominant cell type? | Basophils melanotropes secrete MSH. |
| What are the main histological features of the posterior pituitary, what are Herring bodies, and what do pituicytes resemble? | Nonmyelinated axons, Herring bodies store hormone, pituicytes like astrocytes. |
| How are thyroid follicles structured, what is stored in the colloid, how does cell shape change with activity, and what hormone is produced? | Follicles with colloid Tg, cuboidal tall active flat inactive, produce T3/T4. |
| What are parafollicular cells of the thyroid, where are they found, what hormone do they release, and what is its effect on bone and calcium levels? | Between follicles, calcitonin, inhibit osteoclasts, lower Ca. |
| What are the main steps of thyroid hormone synthesis, including Tg production, iodide transport, iodination, TSH stimulation, and release of T3/T4? | Tg made, iodide pumped, iodination, TSH triggers release. |
| What are the main cell types in the parathyroid gland, which hormone do chief cells secrete, and how does it affect calcium homeostasis? | Chief cells secrete PTH increase Ca, oxyphils unknown. |
| How does parathyroid hormone increase blood calcium through effects on bone, kidney, intestine, and vitamin D metabolism? | ↑bone resorption, ↓renal Ca loss, ↑GI absorption via Vit D. |
| What are the three zones of the adrenal cortex, what does each secrete, and what mnemonic is used to remember their functions? | Glomerulosa aldosterone, Fasciculata cortisol, Reticularis androgens, mnemonic salt-sugar-sex. |
| What is the embryologic origin of the adrenal cortex compared to the medulla? | Cortex mesoderm, medulla neural crest. |
| What type of cells are in the adrenal medulla, what do lighter versus darker cells secrete, and what is their neural origin? | Chromaffin, light epi, dark norepi, modified postganglionic neurons. |
| How is the adrenal gland supplied with blood, how do cortical and medullary vessels interact, and why does the medulla see high cortical hormone levels? | Cortical caps drain into medulla, medulla bathed in cortical hormones. |
| What hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary, anterior pituitary, and pars intermedia? | Posterior ADH/oxytocin, Anterior GH/Prl/TSH/FSH/LH/ACTH, Intermedia MSH. |
| What are the secretory products of the thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands, and what is the functional role of each? | Thyroid T3/T4+calcitonin, Parathyroid PTH, Adrenal cortex salt/sugar/sex medulla epi/norepi. |
Created by:
Hoofin'it