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VM602 Q2/Final NEURO
FINALS NEUROLOGY
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the three main functions of the spinal cord in relation to communication and reflexes? | It communicates with peripheral organs, communicates with the brain via ascending/descending tracts, and mediates reflexes via interneuronal circuits. |
| What are the two major enlargements of the spinal cord and what do they innervate? | The cervical enlargement innervates thoracic limbs; the lumbar enlargement innervates pelvic limbs. |
| What is the cauda equina and which major nerves are included in it? | A bundle of spinal roots after cord termination; includes sciatic and pudendal nerves. |
| What is the filum terminale and what is its function? | A thin filament anchoring the spinal cord caudally. |
| What causes conus medullaris syndrome and what are key symptoms? | Compression of cauda equina; causes back pain, hindlimb atrophy, and incontinence. |
| What spinal cord landmarks divide the cord dorsally and ventrally into halves? | Dorsal median sulcus and ventral median fissure. |
| Which sulci mark entry and exit points of spinal roots? | Dorsolateral sulcus for dorsal roots, ventrolateral sulcus for ventral roots. |
| How is gray matter organized within a transverse section of the spinal cord? | Dorsal horn for sensory, lateral horn for gamma motor and sympathetic, ventral horn for alpha motor. |
| What is found in spinal cord white matter and how is it organized? | Myelinated axons grouped into tracts; organized into dorsal, lateral, and ventral funiculi. |
| Which funiculus contains mostly ascending tracts? | Dorsal funiculus. |
| Which funiculus contains both ascending and descending tracts? | Lateral funiculus. |
| Which funiculus contains mostly descending tracts? | Ventral funiculus. |
| What are the three meningeal layers that protect the spinal cord? | Dura mater, arachnoid membrane, pia mater. |
| What is the denticulate ligament and what is its role? | Pia mater projections anchoring cord to dura, stabilizing position. |
| What is the role of cerebrospinal fluid in spinal cord protection? | Suspends cord, cushions against trauma, should be clear and watery. |
| Where is the epidural space located and what does it contain? | Between dura mater and vertebrae periosteum; contains fat, connective tissue, vessels. |
| What are the two major parts of the intervertebral disc and their function? | Nucleus pulposus for shock absorption, annulus fibrosus for structural support. |
| What is Type I intervertebral disc disease and which animals are most affected? | NP extrusion with AF rupture; common in young dogs, acute onset. |
| What is Type II intervertebral disc disease and how does it differ from Type I? | Fibrocartilaginous NP protrusion without rupture; older dogs, gradual onset. |
| What is discospondylitis and its main clinical signs? | Infectious disc inflammation; causes back pain, fever, weight loss. |
| What is degenerative myelopathy and which breed is predisposed? | A progressive white matter disease; common in German Shepherds. |
| What is equine motor neuron disease and its cause? | LMN degeneration causing weakness/atrophy; linked to vitamin E deficiency. |
| What are common causes of traumatic spinal cord injury? | Disc herniation, car accidents, falls. |
| Where are lower motor neurons located within the spinal cord gray matter? | In the ventral horn. |
| True or False: Dogs with conus medullaris syndrome show atrophy of thoracic limb muscles. | False, atrophy is in pelvic limb muscles. |
| True or False: The spinal cord is protected only by cerebrospinal fluid. | False, it is also protected by meninges, epidural space, and vertebrae. |
| Which structure divides white matter into funiculi? | Sulci and fissures of the cord surface. |
| Which spinal cord structure contains ependymal cells and cerebrospinal fluid? | The central canal. |
| What is the main function of lower motor neurons (LMNs) and where are they located? | They directly control skeletal muscle and mediate reflexes; located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. |
| What is the main function of upper motor neurons (UMNs) and where are they located? | They initiate voluntary movement, regulate posture and tone, and control LMNs; located in cerebral cortex and brainstem nuclei. |
| What are the four primary functions of UMNs? | Control LMNs, initiate and maintain gait, maintain extensor tone for posture, regulate visceral muscle activity. |
| What are the main differences between pyramidal and extrapyramidal motor systems? | Pyramidal: cortex origin, voluntary, fine motor control; Extrapyramidal: brainstem origin, involuntary, posture and gait. |
| Which descending tract is less developed in animals but important in humans? | The corticospinal tract of the pyramidal system. |
| Which descending tracts are more important in quadrupeds and why? | Extrapyramidal tracts; they control posture, balance, and gait. |
| What are the actions of medullary vs. pontine reticulospinal tracts? | Medullary tract excites flexors and inhibits extensors; pontine tract excites extensors and inhibits flexors. |
| What are typical clinical signs of LMN lesions? | Hyporeflexia, hypotonia, rapid severe atrophy, fasciculations. |
| What are typical clinical signs of UMN lesions? | Hyperreflexia, hypertonia, mild disuse atrophy, spastic paresis. |
| What happens when UMNs are damaged in relation to spinal reflexes? | Loss of inhibitory control causes hyperreflexia. |
| What clinical signs occur with spinal cord lesion at L4–S3? | Thoracic limbs normal, pelvic limbs show LMN signs. |
| What clinical signs occur with spinal cord lesion at T3–L3? | Thoracic limbs normal, pelvic limbs show UMN signs. |
| What clinical signs occur with spinal cord lesion at C6–T2? | Thoracic limbs show LMN signs, pelvic limbs show UMN signs. |
| What clinical signs occur with spinal cord lesion at C1–C5? | Thoracic and pelvic limbs show UMN signs. |
| A dog has difficulty rising, bilateral hindlimb ataxia, and reduced withdrawal reflex in hindlimbs — what type of lesion? | LMN lesion in pelvic limbs. |
| An animal has normal to hyperreflexive hindlimb withdrawal reflexes — what lesion type is suspected? | UMN lesion in pelvic limbs. |
| Loss of perineal reflex, hypotonia, muscle wasting, and reduced withdrawal in hindlimbs, with thoracic limbs normal — what lesion type? | LMN lesion localized to pelvic limbs. |
| A cat is walking on its hocks with normal reflexes in hindlimbs — what type of lesion? | UMN lesion in pelvic limbs. |
| Paresis with exaggerated withdrawal reflexes in both hindlimbs indicates what lesion? | UMN lesion in pelvic limbs. |
| If an animal has a spinal cord lesion at C1–C5, what clinical signs would you expect and why? | UMN signs in thoracic and pelvic limbs; LMNs intact but UMN inhibition lost. |
| Lower motor neuron disease most likely results in what effect on muscle? | Muscle atrophy. |
| Myotatic hyperreflexia can be induced by a lesion of which neurons? | Upper motor neurons. |
| What is the primary function of the corticospinal tract? | Voluntary fine motor control of the limbs. |
| With UMN disease, why may reflexes still be present? | Local spinal reflex arcs remain intact even without descending control. |
| Which is true: UMN disease may cause flaccid paralysis, LMN causes hyperreflexia, or UMN disease allows reflexes to persist? | UMN disease allows reflexes to persist. |
| A dog has a lesion in the right half of spinal cord at L4–S2. What is expected clinically? | Normal thoracic limb reflexes, areflexia in the right pelvic limb. |
| What are the four major types of sensations processed by the nervous system (proprioception, nociception, exteroception, interoception) and what general information do they provide? | Proprioception=position, nociception=pain, exteroception=external stimuli, interoception=viscera. |
| What receptors detect proprioception and what specific body stimuli do they monitor? | Muscle spindles=stretch, Golgi tendon= tension, Pacinian+Ruffini=joint/skin, vestibular hair cells=head. |
| What receptors detect nociception and what stimuli do they respond to? | Nociceptors detect noxious stimuli and pain. |
| What receptors detect exteroception and what types of environmental signals do they sense? | Exteroceptors sense touch, temperature, pressure, vibration, special senses (hearing, vision, taste). |
| What receptors detect interoception and what body information do they sense? | Interoceptors detect visceral signals like distention, ischemia, digestion, respiration. |
| What are the differences between A fibers and C fibers in terms of myelination, size, and conduction speed? | A fibers=myelinated, large, fast; C fibers=unmyelinated, small, slow. |
| What is the function of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) primary sensory neurons? | Transmit receptor signals into CNS. |
| How do sensory signals travel through first, second, and third-order neurons? | 1st DRG→spinal cord, 2nd→thalamus, 3rd→cortex. |
| Where do sensory signals enter the spinal cord, and how are they organized? | Enter via dorsal root into dorsal horn; different modalities activate distinct neurons. |
| What is unconscious proprioception, what receptors contribute, and where do signals go? | Spindles+vestibular hair cells→cerebellum via spinocerebellar/spinocuneocerebellar. |
| What is conscious proprioception, what receptors contribute, and where do signals go? | Touch/pressure→cortex via spinomedullary tract ipsilaterally. |
| What spinal cord lesion at C3-C4 affecting dorsal funiculus, lateral funiculus, and dorsal horn would cause? | Deficits in left thoracic and left pelvic limb proprioception/motor. |
| What spinal cord lesion at T4-T5 affecting dorsal funiculus, lateral funiculus, and dorsal horn would cause? | Deficit in left pelvic limb proprioception/motor, thoracic limbs spared. |
| What system detects head orientation relative to gravity and what happens if damaged? | Vestibular system; disease causes dizziness, vertigo, imbalance. |
| What is tested in a neurological exam of proprioception and why? | Conscious proprioception via posture/gait tests; no reflex or unconscious tests. |
| What postural reaction test uses paw placed dorsally on ground, with failure to correct indicating deficit? | Knuckling test. |
| What postural reaction test shifts weight onto one limb and moves laterally, with failure indicating proprioceptive/motor deficit? | Hopping test. |
| What test lifts both limbs on one side and forces hopping on opposite limbs, assessing proprioception/strength? | Hemiwalking test. |
| What test lowers animal so pelvic limbs touch ground, normal extension/stepping backward indicates intact proprioception? | Extensor postural thrust. |
| What test lifts hind limbs so animal walks on forelimbs, detecting thoracic limb strength, coordination, proprioception? | Wheelbarrow reaction. |
| What is tested in visual placing versus tactile placing during proprioception exams? | Visual=extend limbs before table, tactile=extend when dorsal paw contacts table edge. |
| What postural abnormalities may be noted at rest in neurological exam? | Kyphosis, lordosis, head tilt/turn, wide-based stance. |
| What gait abnormalities can be observed and what do they indicate? | Ataxia, paresis/plegia, lameness; mix of sensory and motor deficits. |
| s it good if you do not feel nociception or pain? | No, because pain is a natural protective mechanism that prevents tissue damage. |
| Is it good if you do not feel severe pain under disease conditions? | No, because absence of pain can lead to unnoticed injuries, severe damage, and psychological complications. |
| Do current medicines stop all pain? | No, current drugs can reduce inflammatory pain but cannot fully stop neuropathic pain. |
| Are you able to tell others about your pain? | Yes, because conscious cortical processing allows communication of pain. |
| Can you understand other people’s pain? | Yes, pain networks in the brain allow empathy and social understanding of others’ pain. |
| What is the pain rating scale used for? | It assesses intensity of pain based on patient self-report or observer assessment. |
| What was Descartes’ early idea of pain pathways? | Particles of heat activate skin pain nerves, signals travel to the brain, which recognizes pain and location, then motor nerves withdraw the foot. |
| What neurons form the three-neuron chain of nociception? | 1st order peripheral sensory neuron, 2nd order dorsal horn neuron projecting to thalamus, 3rd order thalamic neuron projecting to cortex. |
| What fibers carry dull slow pain, sharp fast pain, and touch? | C fibers carry dull slow pain, A-delta fibers carry sharp fast pain, A-beta fibers carry tactile input. |
| What do muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs detect? | Proprioceptive information like muscle stretch and tension. |
| Where are nociceptors located and what do they detect? | Free nerve endings in skin and tissue detect noxious mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli. |
| What tract carries nociceptive signals to the thalamus? | Spinothalamic tract, contralateral, multisynaptic in domestic animals. |
| What pathway carries deep dull aching visceral pain? | Spinoreticular tract, projecting to reticular formation and limbic system for emotional and autonomic responses. |
| What does the somatosensory cortex do for pain? | Processes discriminative aspects like intensity, duration, and location. |
| What theory explains how touch reduces pain? | Gate control theory: tactile input activates inhibitory interneurons in dorsal horn, reducing nociceptive transmission. |
| What are the three types of pain? | Physiological pain, inflammatory pain, neuropathic pain. |
| What is physiological pain for? | Protects against tissue injury. |
| What happens in patients with NaV1.9 sodium channel mutations who lack nociception? | They self-injure, bite tongue or fingers, jump from heights, suffer severe tissue damage, require psychological care. |
| What is inflammatory pain? | Pain after tissue damage that stops after healing, treatable with NSAIDs and opioids. |
| What is neuropathic pain? | Chronic pain from nerve injury that persists after healing, difficult to stop. |
| What causes neuropathic pain? | Accident, surgery, spinal cord injury, tumors, viral infection like herpes, diabetes. |
| What are two hallmark symptoms of neuropathic pain? | Allodynia (pain from touch) and hyperalgesia (increased pain sensitivity). |
| What mechanism underlies allodynia? | Sprouting of sensory fibers that connect touch input to pain-processing neurons. |
| What mechanism underlies hyperalgesia? | Sympathetic norepinephrine activates pain pathways abnormally. |
| Why can unconscious animals not be tested for pain perception? | Because pain requires cortex and thalamus; withdrawal reflexes do not equal perception. |
| What clinical signs suggest chronic pain in animals? | Behavior changes, licking/grooming, gait change, abnormal posture, limping, crying when touched. |
| How do you test superficial pain perception? | Pinch toe web with hemostats and look for conscious response like vocalizing, turning, pupil dilation, or increased breathing. |
| Why is withdrawal reflex not equal to pain? | Reflex is spinal; pain requires conscious cortical awareness. |
| Which receptors are muscle spindles? | Proprioceptors. |
| Which statement about fibers is correct? | Schwann cells are present in A fibers of sensory neurons. |
| What signals do dorsal root ganglion neurons mediate? | Sensory signals only. |
| What brain region does proprioceptive positioning test evaluate? | Cerebral cortex. |
| If a dog lacks spinal reflexes in a limb but sensation is intact, where is the lesion? | Ventral horn lower motor neurons. |
| If lesion affects left spinomedullary tract, where is proprioception lost? | Left pelvic limb. |
| If pain and proprioception absent in right pelvic limb but thoracic limbs are normal, where is lesion? | Lumbar spinal cord. |
| Which receptors detect pain stimuli? | Free nerve endings. |
| Which tract carries pain and temperature signals? | Spinothalamic tract. |
| Which structure projects sensory signals to cortex? | Thalamus. |
Created by:
Hoofin'it