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VM602 Q2/Final ANATO
VM602 Finals ANATOMY
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What bones form the pelvic girdle and how are they joined together in the animal? | The ilium, ischium, and pubis unite at the acetabulum and meet midventrally at the pelvic symphysis, dorsally with the sacrum. |
| What are the three major regions of the os coxae and what landmark do they form together? | The ilium, ischium, and pubis form the acetabulum for articulation with the femur. |
| What are the two main parts of the ilium and which muscle groups attach to them? | The wing and body; gluteal muscles attach to the lateral gluteal surface, iliocostalis/longissimus/quadratus lumborum attach to the sacropelvic surface. |
| What major iliac landmarks are useful for radiographs and species identification? | Iliac crest, tuber coxae (hook), and tuber sacrale (sacral tuberosity). |
| What features of the ischium are important clinically and as muscle attachment sites? | Ischiatic spine, lesser ischiatic notch, ischiatic arch, and ischiatic tuberosity (“the pin”). |
| What important opening is formed by the pubis and what structure passes through it? | The obturator foramen; closed by obturator muscles, crossed by obturator nerve. |
| What is the acetabulum, what bone contributes during development, and what is its function? | The socket for the femoral head; includes acetabular bone; forms coxofemoral joint. |
| What major differences exist between equine and bovine pelvis shape? | Horse pelvis is longer and narrower; bovine pelvis is shorter and more square-shaped. |
| What are the key features of the femur’s proximal extremity and which muscles attach here? | Head, neck, greater/lesser trochanters, third trochanter; sites for gluteals and obturators. |
| What is the third trochanter, and in which species is it most prominent? | A lateral projection on the femur; very prominent in the horse, small in carnivores and cattle. |
| What are the major distal features of the femur important in stifle function? | Trochlea with medial and lateral ridges, condyles, intercondylar fossa, patella articulation. |
| What sesamoid bones are associated with the femur and which species have them? | Patella in all species; fabellae only in carnivores, within gastrocnemius tendons. |
| What are the key features of the tibia that serve as landmarks for muscle attachment? | Tibial tuberosity (quadriceps, biceps femoris, sartorius), extensor groove, popliteal notch. |
| What is the function of the tibial cochlea and what joint does it help form? | Articulates with trochlea of talus for tarsocrural joint movement. |
| How does the fibula differ between carnivores, ruminants, and horses? | Complete in carnivores; fused proximally/absent body in ruminants; absent distally in horses. |
| What two proximal tarsal bones are always present and what are their features? | Talus with trochlea for tibia articulation; calcaneus with calcanean tuber for hock extensors. |
| What unique tarsal fusions occur in ruminants versus equines? | Ruminants: central + 4th fused, 2nd + 3rd fused; Equines: 1st + 2nd fused. |
| What are the major differences in metatarsals between equines and ruminants? | Horse: MT3 is cannon, MT2+4 are splints; Ruminant: fused MT3+4 is cannon, MT2 small. |
| How are the digits of the equine hindlimb organized and named? | One weight-bearing digit (digit 3); P1=long pastern, P2=short pastern, P3=coffin bone. |
| How are the digits of the ruminant hindlimb organized and named? | Digits 3+4 weight-bearing, digits 2+5 dewclaws; each with P1, P2, P3 (coffin bone). |
| What sesamoid bones are found in the distal limb across species? | Proximal sesamoids (paired at fetlock), distal sesamoid (navicular bone), plus dorsal sesamoid in carnivores. |
| Which features of the distal phalanx are key for muscle attachment and hoof structure? | Extensor process, flexor tubercle, ungual process, ungual crest, solar surface. |
| How do radiographic landmarks correspond to muscle attachment sites in the pelvic limb? | Landmarks like tuber coxae, greater trochanter, tibial tuberosity, and calcanean tuber indicate attachments of gluteals, quadriceps, biceps, and gastrocnemius. |
| What fasciae of the hind limb form the connective tissue framework that covers muscles including superficial, gluteal, caudal, thoracolumbar, medial/lateral femoral fascia, and fascia lata? | Superficial, gluteal, superficial caudal, deep trunk, thoracolumbar, medial/lateral femoral, fascia lata. |
| Which lateral pelvic muscles include superficial, middle, piriformis (carnivores), accessory gluteal (large animals), gluteobiceps (ruminants), and tensor fascia lata? | Gluteals, piriformis, accessory gluteal, gluteobiceps, tensor fascia lata. |
| What are attachments, action, innervation, and blood supply of the superficial gluteal muscle? | Sacrum/sacrotuberous/ilium→third trochanter; extend hip, abduct limb; caudal gluteal n.; caudal gluteal + lat circumflex femoral a. |
| What species difference defines piriformis muscle compared to accessory gluteal muscle? | Piriformis only in carnivores; accessory gluteal only in large animals. |
| What ligament forms from sacrum to ischiatic tuberosity in carnivores and what broad structure replaces it in large animals? | Sacrotuberous ligament in carnivores; sacrosciatic ligament in large animals. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the middle gluteal muscle? | Ilium→greater trochanter; extend/abduct hip, medial rotate limb; cranial gluteal n.; cranial gluteal + lat circumflex femoral a. |
| What condition involves inflammation of the trochanteric bursa, causing lameness, especially in Standardbred horses? | Trochanteric bursitis. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the deep gluteal muscle? | Ilium/ischiatic spine→greater trochanter; extend/abduct hip, medial rotate; cranial gluteal n.; cranial gluteal a. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the tensor fasciae latae muscle? | Tuber coxae/ilium/aponeurosis→lat femoral fascia; tense fascia, flex hip, extend stifle; cranial gluteal n.; cranial gluteal + sup circumflex iliac a. |
| Which caudal thigh muscles include biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus? | Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the biceps femoris muscle? | Ischiatic tuberosity/sacrotuberous→patella/tibia/tuber calcanei; extend hip/stifle/tarsus, flex stifle caudally; sciatic n.; multiple vessels. |
| What palpable lymph node lies caudal to the stifle along biceps femoris border in dogs? | Popliteal lymph node. |
| What ruminant muscle combines superficial gluteal and biceps femoris, forming a gluteobiceps? | Gluteobiceps. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the semitendinosus muscle? | Ischiatic tuberosity→tibia/tuber calcanei; extend hip/tarsus, flex stifle; sciatic n.; distal caudal femoral a. (dog), caudal femoral a. (LA). |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the semimembranosus muscle? | Ischiatic tuberosity→femur/tibia; extend hip, flex/extend stifle; sciatic n.; distal caudal femoral a., caudal femoral a. (LA). |
| Which muscles contribute to the common calcanean tendon along with gastrocnemius and others? | Biceps femoris, semitendinosus (minor), gastrocnemius, SDFT, gracilis. |
| Which medial thigh muscles include sartorius, gracilis, pectineus, and adductor? | Sartorius, gracilis, pectineus, adductor. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the sartorius muscle cranial and caudal parts? | Cranial: ilium→patella (flex hip, extend stifle). Caudal: ilium→tibia (flex hip, flex stifle). Saphenous n.; superficial circumflex iliac a. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the gracilis muscle? | Pelvic symphysis→tibia/tuber calcanei; adduct, flex stifle, extend hip/tarsus; obturator n.; prox + caudal femoral a. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the pectineus muscle? | Pubis→medial femur; adduct limb; obturator n.; prox caudal femoral a. + medial circumflex femoral a. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the adductor muscle? | Pubis/ischium→caudal femur; adduct limb, extend hip; obturator n.; multiple vessels. |
| What triangular space allows passage of femoral vessels, and what are its boundaries? | Femoral triangle; cranial: sartorius, caudal: pectineus/adductor, base: abdominal wall. |
| Which four caudal hip muscles rotate the pelvic limb laterally at the hip joint? | Internal obturator, gemelli, quadratus femoris, external obturator. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the internal obturator muscle? | Pelvis→trochanteric fossa; lateral rotate hip; sciatic n.; absent in ruminants. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the gemelli muscles? | Ischium→trochanteric fossa; lateral rotate hip; sciatic n.; iliolumbar a. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the quadratus femoris muscle? | Caudal ischium→intertrochanteric crest; extend hip, lateral rotate; sciatic n.; caudal gluteal a. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the external obturator muscle? | Pubis/ischium→trochanteric fossa; adduct + lateral rotate hip; obturator n.; obturator a. |
| Which cranial thigh muscle group includes rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius, acting as primary stifle extensors? | Quadriceps femoris. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the rectus femoris muscle? | Ilium→tibial tuberosity; extend stifle, flex hip; femoral n.; lat circumflex femoral a. + superficial circumflex iliac a. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of vastus lateralis, medialis, and intermedius muscles? | Prox femur→tibial tuberosity; extend stifle; femoral n.; lat circumflex femoral a. |
| What are attachments, actions, innervation, and blood supply of the iliopsoas muscle? | Lumbar vertebrae/ilium→lesser trochanter; flex hip; femoral n.; iliolumbar a. |
| Where are the craniolateral muscles of the crus located and what nerves innervate them? | On the craniolateral aspect of the leg; innervated by the fibular (peroneal) nerve |
| Which artery supplies most of the craniolateral muscles of the crus? | Cranial tibial artery |
| What is the action of the cranial tibial muscle? | Flexes the hock (tarsocrural joint) and rotates paw laterally |
| What are the attachments of the long digital extensor muscle? | Extensor fossa of femur → extensor processes of distal phalanges II–V |
| What is the main function of the long digital extensor muscle? | Extends digits II–V, flexes hock |
| What is unique about the long digital extensor in terms of retinacula? | Passes under crural and tarsal extensor retinacula |
| What is the action of fibularis (peroneus) longus muscle? | Flexes hock, rotates paw medially |
| Which craniolateral muscle is present only in carnivores? | Fibularis (peroneus) brevis |
| Which tendon is associated with equine bone spavin? | Cunean tendon (cranial tibial medial insertion) |
| What is the function of fibularis tertius in the horse? | Links stifle and hock, flexes hock; rupture leads to dissociation of motion |
| Which condition is caused by hyperflexion of the tarsal joints in horses and may require lateral digital extensor resection? | Stringhalt |
| Which extensor retinacula are present in horses? | Proximal, middle, distal around long digital extensor |
| Which extensor retinacula are present in ruminants? | Proximal and distal only |
| What are the attachments of gastrocnemius muscle? | Medial/lateral supracondylar tuberosities of femur → tuber calcanei |
| What is the action of gastrocnemius? | Extends hock, flexes stifle |
| What additional head is present in large animal gastrocnemius? | Soleus muscle (arises from fibular head) |
| What is the action of superficial digital flexor muscle? | Flexes proximal/middle digital joints II–V, flexes stifle, extends hock |
| Which structure links stifle and hock in large animals? | Reciprocal apparatus (includes SDF and fibularis tertius) |
| What tendons form the common calcanean tendon? | Major: gastrocnemius, superficial digital flexor; Minor: biceps femoris, gracilis, semitendinosus |
| What passes through the flexor manica of the hindlimb? | Deep digital flexor tendon |
| How many heads does the deep digital flexor have in carnivores? | Two: lateral and medial digital flexors |
| How many heads does the deep digital flexor have in large animals? | Three: medial, lateral, caudal tibial |
| What passes through the tarsal tunnel? | Lateral digital flexor tendon, medial & lateral plantar nerves, caudal branch of saphenous artery |
| What is the action of the popliteus muscle? | Rotates leg medially and flexes stifle |
| What is the innervation of all caudal crus muscles? | Tibial nerve |
| Which muscles contribute to the common calcanean tendon in carnivores but not in horses? | Gracilis, semitendinosus, biceps femoris |
| Which ligament system holds digital flexor tendons in place on plantar side of digits? | Plantar digital annular ligaments |
| Which crus muscle is a flexor of the metatarsophalangeal joint and is homologous to forelimb support structures? | Interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament in large animals) |
| Where does the pelvic limb blood supply originate and what two arteries are the first major branches from the aorta? | Aorta → Internal iliac artery and External iliac artery |
| Which artery passes caudally across the ischiatic notch and over the ischiatic spine to supply superficial gluteal, biceps femoris (dorsal), gemelli, and quadratus femoris muscles? | Caudal gluteal artery |
| Which artery supplies the middle and deep gluteal, piriformis, accessory gluteal (LA), and tensor fasciae lata muscles? | Cranial gluteal artery |
| Which artery is the only branch of the external iliac artery, arising in the abdomen and giving rise to the pudendoepigastric trunk and medial circumflex femoral artery? | Deep femoral artery |
| Which artery continues as medial circumflex femoral artery and supplies iliopsoas, vastus medialis, pectineus, gracilis, and proximal adductor muscles? | Medial circumflex femoral artery |
| Which artery is the direct continuation of the external iliac artery after the deep femoral branches off? | Femoral artery |
| Which small branch off the femoral artery supplies sartorius, tensor fasciae latae, and rectus femoris muscles in carnivores, but is absent in large animals? | Superficial circumflex iliac artery |
| Which large branch of the femoral artery supplies quadriceps, tensor fasciae latae, superficial and middle gluteals, and the hip joint capsule? | Lateral circumflex femoral artery |
| Which artery supplies pectineus, middle adductor, and gracilis muscles in carnivores but is absent in large animals? | Proximal caudal femoral artery |
| Which artery branches cranial and caudal in dogs, with cranial ending as dorsal common digital artery and caudal supplying tarsus and plantar metatarsus? | Saphenous artery (canine) |
| Which artery in horses has a cranial branch terminating in the tarsus and a caudal branch joining caudal tibial artery before giving rise to medial and lateral plantar arteries? | Saphenous artery (equine) |
| Which artery in ruminants does not divide, supplies tarsus, and then divides into medial and lateral plantar arteries that become plantar common digital arteries? | Saphenous artery (ruminant) |
| Which artery arises distal to the saphenous and supplies the medial surface of the stifle? | Descending genicular artery |
| Which femoral branch supplies distal adductor and semimembranosus muscles, present only in carnivores? | Middle caudal femoral artery |
| Which femoral branch supplies distal biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, gastrocnemius, and digital flexors before the femoral continues as popliteal artery? | Distal caudal femoral artery |
| Which artery is the continuation of the femoral artery, passes between gastrocnemius heads, supplies stifle, gastrocnemius, and popliteus, then terminates as cranial and caudal tibial arteries? | Popliteal artery |
| Which small vessel is larger in horses, leaves caudal surface of popliteal, and enters interosseous space? | Caudal tibial artery |
| Which artery passes between tibia and fibula, supplies craniolateral crus muscles, and continues as the dorsal pedal artery? | Cranial tibial artery |
| Which artery continues from cranial tibial artery, supplies the tarsus, terminates as arcuate artery, and in horses continues as dorsal metatarsal III? | Dorsal pedal artery |
| Which artery continues as dorsal metatarsal III in horses, courses between MT III and IV, then becomes distal perforating branch and medial/lateral plantar digital arteries (main digit supply)? | Dorsal pedal artery (equine) |
| Which artery continues as dorsal metatarsal III in ruminants, joins dorsal common digital III, connects via interdigital artery to axial plantar proper digital arteries III and IV (main digit supply)? | Dorsal pedal artery (ruminant) |
| Which vein crosses the origin of the common calcanean tendon, ascends on gastrocnemius caudal surface, and terminates in distal caudal femoral vein (used for dog blood draws)? | Lateral saphenous vein |
| Which vein lies medial to stifle, drains cranial and caudal branches, and joins femoral vein (used for cat blood draws)? | Medial saphenous vein |
| Which vein in horses is prominent medially and useful clinically? | Medial saphenous vein (equine) |
| Which vein drains biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, gastrocnemius, and digital flexors before emptying into femoral vein? | Distal caudal femoral vein |
| Which vein lies in femoral triangle, continues through vascular lacuna, and becomes external iliac vein? | Femoral vein |
| What is the overall purpose of the nerves of the pelvic limb, and where do they enter the muscles they supply? | Provide sensory and motor innervation to the hind limb; enter at the proximal end of muscles. |
| Which spinal nerves form the lumbosacral plexus, and how does it compare to the brachial plexus? | L4–S3; more diffuse than brachial plexus. |
| What are the root origins, motor targets, and sensory branches of the femoral nerve? | L4–L6; motor to quadriceps (stifle extension); sensory via saphenous n. to medial thigh, crus, hock. |
| What is the motor function of the saphenous nerve, and what cutaneous region does it innervate? | Motor to sartorius (flex hip, extend or flex stifle); sensory to medial thigh, stifle, leg, tarsus, paw. |
| What are the root origins and motor function of the caudal gluteal nerve, and what extra role does it have in large animals? | L7–S2; motor to superficial gluteal (extend hip, abduct limb); also biceps femoris/gluteobiceps in large animals. |
| Which muscles are innervated by the cranial gluteal nerve, and what are its spinal roots? | L6–S1; middle gluteal, deep gluteal, piriformis, accessory gluteal (large animals), tensor fasciae latae. |
| What are the spinal roots, motor targets, and sensory territory of the sciatic nerve? | L6–S2; motor to hip extensors, stifle flexors (semimembranosus, semitendinosus, biceps femoris, gemelli, int. obturator, quadratus femoris); sensory to caudal/lateral stifle and crus via sural. |
| What are the roots, motor targets, and sensory territory of the tibial nerve? | L7–S1; motor to tarsus extensors and digital flexors; sensory to plantar paw. |
| What are the roots, motor targets, and sensory distribution of the common fibular (peroneal) nerve? | L6–L7; motor to tarsal flexors and digital extensors; sensory via superficial and deep fibular branches to dorsal paw. |
| What are the root origins and motor targets of the obturator nerve, and what muscle group does it supply? | L4–L6; motor to adductor, pectineus, gracilis, external obturator; adductor group. |
| How does nerve naming differ between “common” and “proper” digital nerves? | Common = branches serving multiple digits; proper = branches to specific digit. |
| Up to what level are canine, equine, and bovine distal limb nerves identical, and what is the difference in the lumbosacral plexus of large animals? | Same until tarsus; large animals lack L7 contribution. |
| How does the tibial nerve divide in the equine distal limb? | Into medial and lateral plantar nerves, then medial/lateral plantar metatarsal nerves. |
| What terminal nerves arise from the deep peroneal nerve in the equine distal limb? | Medial and lateral dorsal metatarsal nerves. |
| Where does the medial plantar nerve travel and what digital branches does it give rise to? | Between interosseous and flexor tendons; becomes medial plantar digital nerve above fetlock, gives dorsal branches. |
| How is the lateral plantar nerve connected to the medial plantar, and where does it distribute? | Via communicating branch; supplies digit similar to medial plantar nerve. |
| Which structures are desensitized by an equine palmar/plantar digital nerve block? | All structures of the hoof except the dorsal coronary band. |
| Which structures are desensitized by an abaxial sesamoid block? | Foot, P2, proximal interphalangeal joint, distal SDF & DDF, digital annular and distal sesamoidean ligaments. |
| Which structures are desensitized by a low palmar/plantar nerve block? | Fetlock joint and all structures distal to it. |
| Which structures are desensitized by a high palmar/plantar block? | SDF, DDF, splint bones & ligaments, proximal suspensory, distal check ligament. |
| Which structures are desensitized by tibial and fibular (peroneal) blocks in horses? | Entire limb distal to tibia including tarsus. |
| What are the clinical signs of femoral nerve paralysis in horses, and what causes it? | Due to trauma; horse cannot bear weight, all joints flex, limb collapses in motion. |
| What is the main cause and clinical presentation of obturator nerve paralysis in cattle? | Due to parturition trauma; wide base stance, hindlimbs extended forward/outward. |
| What nerves supply the plantar and dorsal aspects of the bovine digit? | Plantar = tibial nerve → plantar common digital → axial/abaxial plantar digital; dorsal = superficial peroneal → dorsal common digital → axial/abaxial dorsal digital. |
| What are treatment strategies for obturator nerve paralysis in cattle? | Hobbles, anti-inflammatories, deep bedding. |
| How is an intravenous nerve block performed in cattle for regional anesthesia of the lower limb? | Tourniquet proximal to fetlock; inject via dorsal common digital, axial/abaxial plantar digital, lateral plantar metatarsal, or lateral saphenous vein. |
| What bones form the symphysis pelvis, what is its function, and how does it connect the right and left hip regions? | Ischium and pubis; joins left and right hips; stabilizes pelvis. |
| What structures form the sacroiliac joint, what is its main role, and what ligaments reinforce it? | Sacrum and ilium; stability joint; dorsal and ventral sacroiliac ligaments. |
| What is the sacrotuberous ligament, where does it run, and how does its structure differ in large animals? | From sacrum to ischiatic tuberosity; muscle origin; sacrosciatic in large animals. |
| What type of joint is the coxofemoral joint, what is its main movement, and what structures stabilize it? | Ball-and-socket; flexion/extension; capsule and ligaments. |
| What is the function of the ligament of the femoral head and where does it attach? | Connects femur to acetabulum; acetabular fossa to fovea capitis. |
| What unique ligament of the femur is found only in horses, what is its origin, and how does it limit motion? | Accessory ligament; from prepubic ligament; restricts lateral kicking. |
| What structure spans the acetabular notch, continues as the acetabular lip, and deepens the acetabulum? | Transverse acetabular ligament; acetabular lip; fibrocartilaginous rim. |
| What bones articulate to form the stifle, and what are the two major joints plus the patellar joint called? | Femur, tibia, patella; femorotibial (medial/lateral) and femoropatellar. |
| How many joint sacs form the stifle, and how do their communications differ among carnivores, ruminants, and equines? | Three sacs; carnivores all communicate, ruminants partial, horses femoropatellar with medial femorotibial. |
| Which structures extend from the femorotibial sacs and what tendons are associated with them? | Caudal gastrocnemius sesamoids, long digital extensor sheath, popliteus tendon. |
| What structure attaches the patella to the tibial tuberosity, what muscle inserts here, and what lies beneath it? | Patellar ligament; quadriceps femoris tendon; infrapatellar fat pad. |
| How do patellar ligaments differ in horses and cows compared to dogs, and what role do they play in the stay apparatus? | Three ligaments in horses/cows vs. one in dogs; help lock stifle. |
| What are the femoropatellar ligaments, where do they extend, and what do they stabilize? | Medial/lateral ligaments; patella to gastrocnemius sesamoids; stabilize patella. |
| What fibrocartilage structures compensate for femoral–tibial incongruence, and what are they called on each side? | Menisci; medial and lateral semilunar fibrocartilage. |
| What ligaments anchor the menisci to the tibia and connect them cranially? | Cranial/caudal meniscotibial ligaments; transverse ligament. |
| What ligament attaches the caudal lateral meniscus to the femur at the intercondylar fossa? | Meniscofemoral ligament. |
| What is the function of the cranial cruciate ligament, where does it attach, and how is rupture diagnosed clinically? | Prevents cranial tibial shift; lateral femoral condyle to tibia; drawer sign. |
| What is the function of the caudal cruciate ligament, and what tibial movement does it restrict? | Prevents caudal tibial movement; medial femoral condyle to tibia. |
| What are the medial and lateral collateral ligaments of the stifle, where do they attach, and what motion do they limit? | Epicondyles of femur to tibia/fibula; prevent side-to-side motion. |
| What bones form the tarsal (hock) joint, what are its four articulations, and which has greatest movement? | Tibia, fibula, tarsals; tarsocrural, proximal/distal intertarsal, tarsometatarsal; tarsocrural hinge joint. |
| What is the largest synovial sac of the hock, how many pouches does it form, and which is the preferred puncture site in horses? | Tarsocrural sac; four pouches; dorsomedial pouch preferred. |
| What anatomical passage is known as the tarsal tunnel, what boundaries form it, and what structures pass through? | Sustentaculum tali, calcaneus, flexor retinaculum; tendons, plantar nerves, saphenous artery. |
| What joint is called the fetlock, what sesamoids and ligaments support it, and what is its functional importance? | Metatarsophalangeal; two proximal sesamoids + plantar annular ligament; high-motion joint. |
| What is the flexor manica, which tendon forms it, and how does it relate to the deep digital flexor tendon? | Collar of SDF tendon; DDF passes through to distal phalanx. |
| What ligaments stabilize the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints, and what annular ligaments reinforce them? | Axial/abaxial collateral ligaments; proximal/distal digital annular ligaments. |
| What surgical procedures involve the digits in domestic animals, and what is removed in each? | Dewclaw removal removes vestigial digit; feline onychectomy removes P3. |
| Why is the digit such an important clinical focus in large animals, especially horses and cattle? | Because most lameness originates in the digit due to high weight-bearing stress. |
| What are the three major joints of the equine digit, and what common names are associated with each? | Fetlock = metacarpophalangeal/metatarsophalangeal, Pastern = proximal interphalangeal, Coffin = distal interphalangeal. |
| What is the clinical significance of the proximal palmar/plantar pouch of the equine fetlock joint? | It is the site used for joint injections, located between cannon and interosseous. |
| Which extensor tendon inserts on PIII in the horse, and what other structures join it before insertion? | Long/common digital extensor; joined by extensor branches of interosseous. |
| What tendon joins the common/long digital extensor and serves as the proper extensor of digit IV in the horse? | Lateral digital extensor; joins long/common digital extensor. |
| Where does the superficial digital flexor of the horse insert, and what structure does it form to allow the DDF to pass through? | On distal P1 and cartilage of P2; forms flexor manica. |
| What is the insertion of the deep digital flexor tendon in the horse, and what structure does it pass over before attaching? | Terminates on P3; passes over navicular bone. |
| What is the equine interosseous ligament also called, where does it originate, and what structures does it divide into? | Suspensory ligament; proximal cannon; divides into medial and lateral branches to proximal sesamoids and extensor branches. |
| What synovial bursa cushions the DDF tendon in the equine digit, and what condition is associated with it? | Navicular bursa; associated with navicular syndrome. |
| What ligaments stabilize each joint of the equine digit, and how are they arranged? | Medial and lateral collateral ligaments; present at fetlock, pastern, and coffin joints. |
| What ligament at the level of the fetlock holds both SDF and DDF tendons in place in horses? | Palmar/plantar annular ligament. |
| What are the two digital annular ligaments in horses, where are they located, and what do they hold in place? | Proximal (X-shaped at P1) and distal (P1–P3 over DDF and cushion); hold flexor tendons. |
| What digits are present as dewclaws in cattle, and how do they differ structurally from weight-bearing digits? | Digits II and V; reduced, don’t touch ground, usually two phalanges or distal phalanx only. |
| What is the structural axis of bovine digits, and how does it determine axial vs abaxial terminology? | Axis runs between digits III and IV; axial = toward axis, abaxial = away from axis. |
| How does the long/common digital extensor differ in cattle compared to horses? | Has two heads; medial head proper extensor of digit III, lateral head common to III and IV. |
| Which tendon is the proper extensor of digit IV in cattle, and how does its attachment mimic the medial digital extensor for digit III? | Lateral digital extensor; attaches to distal phalanx of digit IV. |
| Where does the superficial digital flexor insert in cattle, and how does it interact with interosseous at the fetlock? | On middle phalanx; joins interosseous band forming flexor manica around DDF. |
| Where does the deep digital flexor of cattle attach, and what structures does it pass before insertion? | Attaches to distal phalanx; passes flexor manica, navicular bone, and navicular bursa. |
| How many interosseous ligaments are in cattle, where do they originate, and how do they terminate? | Two (III and IV); from proximal metacarpal/metatarsal; split into branches to sesamoids, extensor branches, and interdigital branches. |
| What is the function of bovine interdigital ligaments, and what are the two types called? | Stabilize digits; proximal and distal interdigital ligaments. |
| What collateral ligaments are found in bovine digits, and which are more robust for hoof stability? | Axial and abaxial for each joint; axial more robust. |
| What annular ligaments exist in cattle to hold tendons in place at the digit? | Palmar/plantar annular ligament at fetlock; proximal and distal digital annular ligaments. |
| What synovial bursae are associated with the bovine digit, and where are they located? | Subtendinous bursae of proper digital extensors at fetlock; navicular bursa beneath DDF. |
| What tendon sheaths are present in bovine digits, and which tendons share them? | Synovial sheaths for terminal branches of extensors; common sheath for SDF and DDF. |
| What are the three distinct layers that make up the hoof, how do they relate to the skin, and what does each layer contribute to hoof function? | Subcutis, dermis, epidermis; cushion, nourish, and produce horn. |
| How does the subcutis differ in various hoof regions, and what role does it play in shock absorption? | Absent in wall/sole, thick in bulb for cushioning. |
| What is the structure and function of the dermis in the hoof, what are dermal papillae and dermal lamellae, and how do they contribute to hoof nourishment? | Dermis has papillary and reticular layers; papillae and lamellae increase surface area for blood and attachment. |
| How does the epidermis interact with the dermis, what does it produce, and how does this vary by hoof region? | Conforms to dermal lamellae/papillae, produces tubular horn except lamellar horn at wall. |
| Why are lamellae essential for hoof stability, how do sensitive and insensitive lamellae differ, and what do secondary lamellae do in horses? | Lamellae interlock dermis/epidermis, suspend distal phalanx, secondary lamellae attach to basement membrane. |
| How does the lamellar attachment system reduce stress during peak loading and prevent damage in the normal hoof? | Large surface area distributes forces evenly, keeps hoof and bone moving together. |
| What occurs during laminitis, and how does it alter the normal relationship between the hoof wall and distal phalanx? | Inflamed lamellae separate from bone, destabilizing hoof capsule. |
| What is the white line, what tissues form it, and why is it clinically important when shoeing a horse? | Junction of sole/wall; meeting of sensitive/insensitive lamellae; nail placement landmark. |
| What are the three layers of the hoof wall, which layer bears the horny lamellae, and how does this structure support the distal phalanx? | External thin, middle thick, internal bears horny lamellae suspending bone. |
| How does hoof growth occur and where does regeneration begin? | Continuous growth from coronary band where basal cells form keratinocytes. |
| How are keratin tubules formed within the hoof, and what structural advantage does their orientation provide? | Keratinocytes form tubules from coronary band to ground; cross-fiber structure adds strength. |
| How does intertubular horn differ from tubular horn, and which provides greater mechanical strength? | Intertubular horn stronger, resists fracture better than tubular horn. |
| How do the physical properties of the hoof wall prevent crack propagation and contribute to toughness? | Tubules guide cracks parallel, inner walls resist fracture via water content. |
| What are the main external structures of the hoof, and what functions do they serve collectively? | Coronary band, periople, wall, toe, quarter, heel, bulbs; protect and absorb shock. |
| What are key features of the bovine hoof, and how do they differ from the equine hoof in structure and function? | Two claws per limb, divided sole, more weight spread; horse has single hoof capsule. |
| What are two major bacterial diseases of bovine hooves, what are their causes, and how are they treated? | Foot rot by Fusobacterium (antibiotics/foot bath); digital dermatitis by Treponema (topical/foot bath). |
| What are the major parts of the equine hoof and their locations relative to one another? | Frog, bars, wall, sole, white line, bulbs, quarters, toe, digital cushion. |
| What is the function of the frog and digital cushion in the equine hoof? | Shock absorption, circulation aid. |
| What are the major cartilages of the equine hoof and their purpose? | Medial/lateral cartilages aid flexibility and blood flow. |
| What happens during equine laminitis, what are its causes and clinical signs, and how is it treated? | Laminae inflamed from diet/stress, heat, pain, bounding pulse; rest, NSAIDs, diet control. |
| What is the function of the deciduous horn capsule in newborn foals, and what happens to it after birth? | Protects uterus during gestation, dries/falls off after walking. |
| What is the equine stay apparatus, and what function does it serve in helping horses stand for extended periods with minimal fatigue? | It’s a system of tendons, ligaments, and muscles that stabilize joints and prevent collapse while standing. |
| Why can horses stand longer than most domestic animals without tiring their muscles? | Weight is supported by non-fatiguing tendons, ligaments, and fascia instead of constant muscle contraction. |
| Which structures carry most of the load when a horse stands quietly, and why is this energy-efficient? | Tendons, ligaments, deep fascia; they do not tire like muscles. |
| What is the general function of the forelimb stay apparatus, and how does it support the weight of the trunk? | Maintains limb alignment and prevents joint collapse under the trunk’s cranial weight. |
| How does the forelimb stay apparatus prevent flexion at multiple joints when the horse is standing? | Tendons, ligaments, and passive tension resist flexion in shoulder, elbow, carpus, and prevent overextension in fetlock/pastern. |
| Which muscles attach the trunk to the forelimb and contribute to stability during quiet standing? | Serratus ventralis. |
| Why is the forelimb stay apparatus sometimes not considered a true “stay apparatus”? | It relies partly on muscle tension rather than complete mechanical locking. |
| What is the primary purpose of the hind limb stay apparatus in the horse? | Prevents passive collapse of the hind limb with minimal muscular effort. |
| Which joints are stabilized by the hind limb stay apparatus, and what movements are prevented? | Prevents stifle/hock flexion and fetlock/phalangeal overextension. |
| How does the horse’s ability to lock the stifle contribute to the stay apparatus function? | Locks stifle so leg becomes a weight-bearing pillar with minimal muscle use. |
| Which anatomical features enable the stifle joint to lock in place? | Asymmetrical femoral trochlea, patella, and two patellar ligaments form a loop over the medial ridge. |
| What is the role of the medial ridge of the femoral trochlea in locking the stifle? | Its enlarged tubercle anchors the patellar ligament loop during locking. |
| What keeps the patella in position during standing square before full locking occurs? | Muscle tone from gracilis, sartorius, biceps femoris, and tensor fasciae latae. |
| What happens to the patella and ligaments when a horse rests on one hind limb? | Patella rotates medially; medial ligament and fibrocartilage slide caudally to fully lock stifle. |
| Why can the horse maintain a locked stifle with minimal muscle activity? | Locking mechanism holds weight-bearing position without continuous contraction. |
| What is the reciprocal mechanism in the hind limb stay apparatus, and which two structures accomplish it? | A linkage ensuring stifle and hock move together; accomplished by fibularis (peroneus) tertius and superficial digital flexor. |
| How does the reciprocal mechanism coordinate movement of the stifle and hock joints? | Flexion or extension of one causes identical movement in the other. |
| What would happen if the fibularis tertius ruptured in a horse? | Hock could extend while stifle flexes, breaking synchronization. |
| What structures prevent overextension of the fetlock in the hind limb? | Suspensory apparatus, superficial digital flexor, and deep digital flexor tendons. |
| Which components make up the suspensory apparatus and how do they work together? | Interosseous muscle, proximal sesamoid bones, sesamoidean ligaments; together resist fetlock overextension. |
| How does the superficial digital flexor tendon contribute to the stay apparatus despite lacking a proximal check ligament? | Attaches to calcanean tuber and supports joints through tension and reciprocal action. |
| How does the deep digital flexor tendon support the fetlock joint? | Via distal check ligament, resists overextension under weight. |
| Which sesamoidean ligaments prevent overextension of the pastern joint? | Straight, oblique, cruciate, and intersesamoidean ligaments. |
| How do the digital flexor tendons assist in maintaining joint stability in the pastern region? | Provide extra tension and support across joints under load. |
| Why is the coffin joint often disregarded in the study of the stay apparatus? | It flexes passively when the fetlock sinks and doesn’t contribute to weight-bearing lock. |
| How do the structures of the stay apparatus collectively prevent passive collapse of the equine limbs? | They convert muscular effort into passive tension through tendons, ligaments, and interlocking joint mechanisms. |
| What key difference exists between the forelimb and hind limb stay apparatus regarding mechanical locking? | Forelimb uses passive tension; hind limb has an active stifle locking mechanism. |
| Which features of the hind limb stay apparatus allow the horse to rest one leg at a time while standing? | Stifle locking and reciprocal mechanism let one leg bear weight as the other relaxes. |
| How do the superficial and deep digital flexors differ in their attachments and roles in joint stabilization? | SDF connects to calcanean tuber; DDF connects via distal check ligament; both resist overextension. |
| How do the ligaments and tendons of the stay apparatus prevent energy loss during prolonged standing? | They store elastic energy and maintain tension passively without muscle fatigue. |
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Hoofin'it