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psych 101 exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what is psychology? | Psychology is the science of mind and behavior. |
| how did it start? | Psychology started on the foundation of philosophy. |
| Structuralism | to separate conciousness into its most basic parts; uses analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind |
| Functionalism | studied mental processes; enabled us to adapt to the environment |
| Introspection | examination of one's own thoughts and feelings |
| nativism | belief that knowledge is innate(native to the brain) |
| empiricism | brains start blank and knowledge is gained through experience |
| dualism | belief that mind and body are separate |
| materialism | body and mind are not different |
| realism | perceptions are of the world are a copy of the events/objects in the world we experience through senses |
| idealism | perceptions are not copies but the brains best interpretation of information |
| mind is what the brain does | Philosophical Materialism; said by Thomas Hobbes |
| Reactivity | altered behavior due to being observed or measured |
| Demand Characteristics | cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected (Example: math horse) |
| Correlation | A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other( varying variables)(ex. as x increases, y increases) |
| positive correlation | both variables increase (ex. parents with higher education = kids with higher vocab) |
| negative correlation | one variable increase, another decrease (ex. kid watches more TV, they may read fewer books) |
| Strength of correlation | the strength of a correlation can be quantified by using correlation coeffcient ( r= +1.0 is strong positive, r=0 is no relationship, r=-1.0 is strong negative) |
| Operational Definition | a clear and specific explanation of how a concept or variable is measured in a study |
| Validity | how well a test measures what it needs to measure |
| Reliability | the consistency and repeatability of the test results |
| Internal validity | always allows casual relationships ( changes in X , caused changes in Y) |
| External Validity | when variables have been operationally defined in a representative way so results can be generalized to other outside experiments ( changing X will likely lead to changes in Y) |
| Frequency Distribution | statistical method to organize and summarize data (see graphs for more understanding) |
| mean | average of a group of #'s (add all #'s then divide by how any #'s) |
| median | value that's in the middle of all #'s(can be better than the mean sometimes) |
| mode | most frequent # that shows up in a sequence |
| Third Variable Problem | a third factor connected to both variables ( causes two variables to vary together even with no relationship between the two) |
| Characteristics of an experiment | determines causation by manipulating one variable and observing another (independent variable and dependent variable) (ex. drug for Alzimhers) |
| independent variable | the variable being manipulated in an experiment |
| dependent variable | the variable being observed in an experiment |
| Populations | a group of individuals in a research space |
| Samples | a subset of individuals that are from a larger population |
| Random Sampling | randomly selecting participants from a population |
| Random Assignment | randomly assigning those participants to control or experimental group |
| Type l error | detects a relationship when there isn't one(false positive) |
| Type ll error | detects no relationship when there is one(false negative) |
| structure of a neuron | cell body, dendrites, axon |
| Myelin | glial cells that form fatty insulation around the axon |
| Types of neurons | motor, sensory, interneuron, Pukinje Cell, Pyramidal Cell, Bipolar Cells |
| motor | transmits signals to muscles |
| Sensory | receives info fro sensory receptors |
| Interneuron | receives input and send output from other neurons |
| Pukinje Cell | carries info from cerebellum to rest of brain |
| Pyramidal Cell | found in cerebral cortex |
| Bipolar Cells | sensory neuron found in eye |
| what is the Process of Action Potential | electrical signal that is conducted along the length of neuron's axon |
| list of process of action potential | open K+ channels are the resting potential, Na+ channels open and Na+ ions rush into the cell (depolarization)(inside becomes more positive), More Na+ ion channels open, Na+ channels close and K+ channels open. K+ ions rush out making the cell negative ag |
| Synapse | junction between one axon terminal and another neuron (see chapter 3 part 1 for details) |
| Neurotransmitters | Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another |
| Presynaptic | relating to or denoting a nerve cell that releases a transmitter substance into a synapse during transmission of an impulse |
| Postsynaptic | how the brain processes information, integrates signals, and coordinates complex behaviors |
| Reuptake | process where neurotransmitters that have been released at the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron that let it out |
| Enzyme deactivation | process in which enzymes inactivates neurotransmitters by altering their structures |
| Acetylcholine | contracts muscles and slows heart rate |
| Glutamate | causes neuron to be more active |
| GABA | educes activity of neuron |
| Endorphins | several neurons |
| Serotonin | excites some neurons/ influences mood |
| Norepinphrine | speeds heart rate "fight or flight" |
| Dopamine | important for reward system (pleasure) |
| Central nervous system | Brain and Spinal Cord. Responsible for processing sensory information |
| Peripheral Nervous System | sends nerve signal to and from the central nervous system and to the rest of the body |
| Sympathetic | triggers psychological processes related to the need for quick action in an emergency (fight or flight) |
| Parasympathetic | triggers psychological responses related to normal, non-emergency stimulus (rest and recovery) |
| Spinal Reflex | depend on cooperation between motor, sensory, and interneurons |
| Hindbrain | coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord |
| Midbrain | regulates movement, awareness, and arousal |
| Forebrain | largest part of the brain. Important for analysis of sensory information, decision making, language, etc. |
| Thalmaus | provides sensory information to the cerebral cortex |
| Hypothalamus | important for behaviors such as hunger, thirst, and sex drive. Regulates pituitary gland |
| Hippocampus | important for memory |
| Amygdala | important for emotion and fear |
| Left and Right Hemispheres | Both connected by a small axon. |
| left hemisphere | controls the right half of the body. Sees right half of visual field |
| right hemisphere | controls left half of the body. Sees left half of visual field. |
| is the left brain right brain theory real | no, it is a myth |
| Somatosensory Cortex | located in the parietal lobe and processes sensory information from the body |
| Motor Cortex | region in the frontal lobe responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements. |
| frontal lobe | decision making and impulse control |
| Parietal lobe | information from skin (touch, pain, body sense) |
| Temporal lobe | used for smell, taste, sound, and language |
| Occipital lobe | used for vision |
| Mirror Neurons | activates when an action is performed by another person so the we pick up on the behavior |
| Nature | genetic inheritance |
| Nurture | environmental experiences |
| nature and nurture | Both help an individual become who they are |
| monozygotic- | twins derived of a single fertilized egg |
| dyzygotic | twins derived from two separate eggs |
| EEG | Electroencephalography. Non-invasive test that records the electrical activity of the brain. |
| PET | positron emission tomography. Imaging test that uses radioactive material to diagnose and monitor various diseases |
| MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- | non-invasive imaging that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of organs (mostly the brain) |
| fMR I( Functional Magnetic Resonance) | a method that uses MRI to visualize the hemodynamic responses associated with brain and spinal cord activity in humans and animals |
| TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) | Non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, mostly used to better depression. |
| What is sensation? | Simple stimulation of a sense organ leading to detention of physical stimuli in the environment (it does not always match perception) |
| What is perception? | Organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation |
| What is transduction? | The five senses convert physical energy from the world into neural energy, which is sent to the brain |
| How does transduction convert hearing/audition? | Audition (hearing): Sound waves vibrate the eardrum and then the cochlea in the inner ear, where hair cells bend and turn vibrations into electrical signals. |
| How does transduction convert vision/sight? | Light enters the eye and hits the retina, where photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) convert light waves into electrical signals. |
| How does transduction convert taste? | Chemicals in food dissolve in saliva and stimulate taste receptor cells on the tongue, which send electrical signals. |
| How does transduction convert smell? | Odor molecules bind to receptor cells in the nose's olfactory epithelium, triggering electrical signals. |
| How does transduction convert touch? | Pressure, temperature, or pain activate specialized receptors in the skin, which convert the stimulus into electrical signals. |
| Absolute Threshold | Minimum stimulus intensity that can be detected 50% of the time |
| Just Noticeable Differences | Smallest change in stimulus intensity that can be detected |
| What is signal detection? | the process of determining whether a stimulus (signal) is present or not, especially when it's faint or mixed with background noise. |
| hit | "I see it" - Light is present |
| miss | "I don't see it" - Light is present |
| false alarm | "I see it" - Light is absent |
| Correct Rejection | "I don't see it" -Light is absent |
| What is the electromagnetic spectrum? | is the full range of all types of electromagnetic waves (energy that travels as waves at the speed of light). |
| Light | The physical stimulus for vision |
| Wavelength (property of light) | Hue or what we perceive as color |
| Amplitude (property of light) | the brightness |
| Purity (property of light) | Saturation or richness of color |
| Lens (structure of the eye) | The lens changes the shape to focus the image onto the retina; when focused the image is upside down and reversed |
| Cornea (structure of the eye) | Light first enters the eye through the cornea, which is a transparent "window" into the eyeball |
| Retina (structure of the eye) | the part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain (contains rods and cones) |
| Fovea (structure of the eye) | allows high resolution color vision, where most cones are located and almost no rods Ex: what you use to read or focus on a face |
| Rods (Structure of the Eye) | become active only under low-light conditions, for night vision |
| Cones (Structure of the Eye) | Detect color, operate under normal daylight conditions, and allow us to focus on fine details |
| Blind Spots of the eye | Axons from ganglion cells exit the eye through the optic disc where there are no photoreceptors. No photoreceptors= blind spot |
| Optic nerve (pathway from the eye to the brain) | is the bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the eye to the brain. |
| Primary visual cortex or V1 (pathway from the eye to the brain) | is the very first area in the brain that processes visual information; located in the occipital lobe of the back of the brain and receives input from the optic nerve such as color, movement, lines, orientation, and edges |
| What is the function of the Lateral Geniculate nucleus (pathway to the brain)? | It is a relay center in the thalamus that helps process vision before it reaches the brain's visual cortex. |
| What type of signals does the Lateral Geniculate nucleus receive? | It receives signals from the optic nerve fibers coming from the retina. |
| What are the types of cones in the retina? | small- wavelength sensitive, medium-wavelength sensitive, and large- wavelength sensitive |
| What is color blindness? | A reduced ability to distinguish between certain colors; One or more cone types are defective or absent, so colors get mixed up or appear dull. |
| What is trichromatic theory? | There are 3 kinds of cones that respond to different wavelengths, each most sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths. Color vision depends on the relative rate of response by 3 kinds of cones. (wavelengths) Short: blue Medium: green Long: red |
| What is color opponent theory? | Suggests that color is determined by a system of paired opposites and that the trichromatic color does not fully explain color perception Red vs Green Blue vs yellow light vs dark |
| Simple primary visual cortex | Cells that respond to bars or edges of light at a specific angle |
| Complex primary visual cortex | cells that respond to bars or edges of light at a specific angle and that are moving across the visual field |
| Gestalt Principles - Simplicity | stimuli are organized in the simplest way possible |
| Gestalt Principles: Continuity | the tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex, broken-up pattern |
| Gestalt Principles: Proximity | the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping |
| Gestalt Principles: closure | the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete |
| Gestalt Principles: common fate | things moving in the same direction are grouped together |
| linear perspective (monocular cue) | A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance. Parallel lines appear to converge with distance |
| Occlusion (monocular cue) | a visual depth cue that helps us perceive which objects are closer and which are farther away. |
| Texture (monocular cue) | refers to how the surface details of objects change with distance, giving us information about how far away something is—even when using just one eye. |
| relative size cue (monocular cue) | -objects that are farther away take up less space on the retina -things that appear smaller are perceived to be farther away |
| motion parallax (monocular cue) | Objects that are closer move past us more quickly than those in the distance, we infer distance from relative speed |
| binocular depth cues | clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes |
| Sound waves | a longitudinal wave consisting of compressions and rarefactions, which travels through a medium |
| Frequency (property of sound) | corresponds to our perception of pitch |
| Amplitude (property of sound) | Corresponds to our perception of loudness |
| Complexity (property of sound) | corresponds to our perception of timbre |
| What are the bones in the middle ear? | malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), stapes (stirrup) They are called ossicles, and they amplify sounds |
| Cochlea | a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses (snail) |
| Basilar membrane | A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells. |
| Somatosensory cortex | area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
| Odorant molecules | volatile chemicals that bind to receptor proteins in olfactory neurons to stimulate the sense of smell |
| Olfactory bulb | the brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobe |
| Olfactory receptor neurons | sensory receptor cells that convert chemical signals from odorants into neural impulses that travel to the brain |
| olfactory epithelium | a thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that contains the receptors for smell |
| Papillae | rough, bumpy elevations on dorsal surface of tongue |
| taste buds | sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste |
| Salty, sweet, sour, bitter, umami, oleogustus | all parts of the tongue detect all of the tastes |
| Supertasters | people with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations and make up 25% of the population |
| What is the role of smell in our perception of taste | Most of what we experience as flavor comes from odors. The tongue detects only basic tastes, while smell provides the detailed differences between foods. When smell is blocked, like with a stuffy nose, food tastes bland. |
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