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Design/Analysis 1
Design and Analysis Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define psychology | The scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior. |
| What is the main purpose of science? | To systematically observe, test, and revise explanations to prevent us from fooling ourselves. |
| What does it mean for a claim to be “falsifiable”? | It can be tested in a way that could potentially show it to be false. |
| What is scientific literacy? | The ability to ask and answer questions about natural phenomena, evaluate evidence, and apply conclusions appropriately. |
| What is psychological literacy? | The adaptive application of psychological science to personal and societal needs (acting ethically, respecting diversity, using psychological vocabulary, and reflecting on behavior). |
| Give one example of applying psychological literacy in daily life. | Using positive reinforcement to encourage a roommate to do chores. |
| True or False: People only use 10% of their brain. | False. |
| True or False: Schizophrenia involves multiple personalities. | False. |
| True or False: Hypnosis enhances memory accuracy. | False. |
| True or False: More bystanders increase the likelihood of help during emergencies. | False. |
| What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis? | A theory is a broad explanation that organizes findings; a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory. |
| What are the three characteristics of a good theory? | Productive, parsimonious, and falsifiable. |
| Can theories ever become facts? Why or why not? | No. Theories remain tentative explanations, subject to revision, and are never proven as facts. |
| What type of reasoning (induction or deduction) is used to build theories? | Induction (specific → general). |
| What type of reasoning is best for testing hypotheses? | Deduction (general → specific). |
| Inductive or Deductive? “Every swan I’ve seen is white, so all swans must be white.” | Inductive. |
| Inductive or Deductive? “All humans need water. Maria is human. Therefore, Maria needs water.” | Deductive. |
| Which principle warns against assuming two related things cause each other? | Correlation ≠ causation. |
| Which principle applies: “Aliens must exist because no one can prove they don’t”? | Falsifiability (the claim is unfalsifiable). |
| Which principle applies: “Psychologist A says stress causes illness because of hormones, Psychologist B says it’s due to negative thinking. Both have equal evidence.” | Occam’s Razor (choose simpler explanation). |
| Why is replicability important? | It ensures findings are reliable, not just chance or error. |
| Which principle applies: “If someone claims they can read minds, they need strong evidence to support it”? | Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. |
| Which principle applies: “Maybe test anxiety is caused by poor study skills, not just fear of failure.” | Ruling out rival hypotheses. |
| A researcher finds a correlation between eating breakfast and higher grades. What mistake might people make when interpreting this? | Assuming causation (e.g., breakfast causes better grades), when a third factor like socioeconomic status may explain both. |
| You read a headline: “Scientists discover a pill that makes people instantly happy.” Which principle should you use first to evaluate the claim? | Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. |
| Why is induction alone not enough for scientific progress? | It risks overgeneralization; conclusions may be false without broader testing. |
| How does deduction strengthen science compared to induction? | Deduction allows specific predictions to be tested, reducing error and providing stronger evidence |
| Why are statistics and research design important in psychology? | They develop scientific literacy, help evaluate evidence, and prevent being misled by flawed claims. |
| What makes psychology a science rather than just common sense? | It uses systematic observation, evidence, and testing rather than intuition or opinion. |
| Summarize the Six Principles of Scientific Thinking in one sentence. | Claims must be testable, evidence must be strong, explanations should be simple, findings must replicate, alternative explanations must be considered, and correlation does not equal causation. |
| Define pseudoscience. | A set of procedures that appear scientific but are not, lacking safeguards against confirmation bias and belief perseverance |
| What is confirmation bias? | The tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that confirms our beliefs while ignoring disconfirming evidence |
| What is belief perseverance? | The tendency to cling to initial beliefs, such as first impressions, even after receiving contradictory evidence |
| Why are we drawn to pseudoscience? | Because it often makes unfalsifiable claims, mixes pseudoscience with real science, and appeals to emotion or intuition rather than evidence |
| What does an “ad hoc immunizing hypothesis” mean? | An escape clause or loophole created to protect a claim from being falsified |
| What does “lack of self-correction” mean in pseudoscience? | Pseudoscientific claims never change despite contrary evidence |
| What is the danger of exaggerated claims? | They promise dramatic results but don’t provide reliable evidence about causes, representativeness, or verifiability |
| What does “evasion of peer review” mean? | Avoiding scrutiny from other scientists, which prevents objective evaluation |
| What is “absence of connectivity”? | Failing to build on existing scientific knowledge and instead proposing unsupported, grand new ideas |
| What is “psychobabble”? Give an example. | Using impressive-sounding jargon to fake scientific respectability, e.g., “A university study shows…” |
| Why is overreliance on anecdotal evidence a warning sign? | Personal stories (“I know someone who…”) are not reliable scientific evidence |
| What is the emotional reasoning fallacy? | Rejecting a claim because it upsets us |
| What is the bandwagon fallacy? | Believing something is true because many people agree with it |
| What is the either-or fallacy? | Presenting only two options when more exist (e.g., “for me or against me”) |
| What is the “not me” fallacy? | Believing you are immune to bias or always objective |
| What is the appeal to authority fallacy? | Accepting a claim simply because an authority figure endorses it |
| What is the argument from antiquity fallacy? | Assuming a belief is valid because it has been around for a long time |
| What is the appeal to ignorance fallacy? | Assuming a claim is true because no one has proven it false |
| What is “opportunity cost” in pseudoscience? | Wasting time, money, and effort on ineffective treatments instead of proven ones |
| What is an example of direct harm from pseudoscience? | People may get physically hurt by unsafe, ineffective treatments |
| How can pseudoscience contribute to animal harm? | Some pseudoscientific practices can lead to animal deaths and extinctions |
| How does pseudoscience affect critical thinking? | It discourages skepticism and the ability to evaluate claims logically |
| What is scientific skepticism? | Openness to new claims while subjecting them to careful scrutiny |
| What is cynicism (excessive skepticism)? | Close-mindedness that rejects claims outright, often because they contradict personal beliefs or cause discomfort |
| Why is excessive skepticism a problem? | It can lead to ignoring valid new evidence or discoveries |
| A friend says: “Astrology must work because people have believed in it for thousands of years.” Which fallacy is this? | Argument from antiquity |
| An ad says: “A clinical trial was conducted and proved this supplement works!” but provides no details. Which pseudoscience warning sign is this? | Psychobabble |
| Someone claims: “No one can prove ghosts don’t exist, so they must be real.” Which fallacy is this? | Appeal to ignorance |
| A new therapy claims to “cure depression in just 3 days with no effort.” Which pseudoscience warning sign is this? | Exaggerated claims |
| A friend refuses to accept research that contradicts their first impression of someone. Which bias is this? | Belief perseverance |
| What are the four main goals of psychological research? | Describe, predict, explain, and apply behavior |
| Which goal of psychology asks “What happens?” | Describe |
| Which goal of psychology asks “When will it happen again?” | Predict |
| Which goal of psychology asks “Why does it happen?” | Explain |
| Which goal of psychology asks “How can we use this knowledge to help people?” | Apply |
| What does it mean for scientific knowledge to be objective? | It measures concepts clearly and systematically, free of personal bias |
| What does it mean for scientific knowledge to be data-driven? | Conclusions must logically follow from the data |
| What does it mean for findings to be replicable and verifiable? | Independent researchers must be able to repeat studies and get the same results |
| Why are scientific conclusions tentative? | They are subject to revision with new research; they are never absolute |
| Why is it important for science to be public? | Findings must undergo peer review and be shared for scrutiny |
| Why do psychologists rely on the scientific method? | It provides a systematic, unbiased way to test hypotheses and build reliable knowledge |
| Can “common sense” always be trusted in psychology? Why or why not? | No. Research often reveals results opposite of intuition (e.g., calorie charts in fast food leading to more calories consumed) |
| In the $1 vs $20 experiment, who reported greater enjoyment of boring tasks, and why? | The $1 group, because they experienced cognitive dissonance and convinced themselves they enjoyed the task more |
| What are empirical questions? | Questions that can be answered through data collection and evidence |
| Why is research considered “fun and interesting”? | It explores real-life behaviors like alcohol rituals, spring break culture, and dating, making it personally relevant |
| What two qualities must a good research idea have? | It must be interesting (socially valuable, predictive, or impactful) and novel (original or building on prior research) |
| What is the purpose of a literature review? | To review existing research, identify gaps, and develop new hypotheses that are interesting and novel |
| What kinds of sources should be prioritized in a literature review? | Peer-reviewed journal articles, chapters, or books |
| Why are review articles a good starting point for literature reviews? | They summarize broad areas of research, helping identify key themes |
| What is the difference between a source and a review? | A source is a single article/book; a review is a systematic summary of multiple sources |
| Give one way to generate a research idea from everyday life. | Studying spontaneously occurring events |
| How can reversing common sense beliefs help research? | It tests when beliefs break down (e.g., challenging “opposites attract”) |
| What is an example of using formal if-then reasoning in research? | “If sleep deprivation impairs memory, then students who sleep less before exams should score lower" |
| How can unrelated research areas generate new ideas? | By combining separate fields to create novel hypotheses |
| Why must research ideas be empirical? | Because they must be answerable with observable, measurable data |
| A researcher wants to test if people eat more during stressful weeks. Which goal of psychology is this? | Predict |
| A psychologist measures whether a therapy decreases depression symptoms. Which trait of science is this testing? | Objective |
| If an experiment is published but no one else can replicate it, which scientific trait is missing? | Replicability & verifiability |
| Why must researchers avoid relying solely on intuition when generating ideas? | Because intuition is often biased; ideas must be supported by literature and empirical testing |
| How can peer review strengthen scientific conclusions? | It ensures methods, data, and conclusions are evaluated and critiqued by experts before acceptance |
| What role do ethics play in psychological research? | Ethics provide standards for professional conduct and protect participants from harm |
| Name four infamous unethical medical studies. | Nazi medical experiments, Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Milgram obedience study, Stanford Prison Experiment |
| Why was the Tuskegee Syphilis Study considered unethical? | Participants were misled, denied treatment, and exploited despite risks |
| Why was the Stanford Prison Experiment considered unethical? | It exposed participants to severe psychological harm without adequate protection |
| When and why was the Belmont Report created? | In 1974, after the Tuskegee study, to establish ethical principles for human research |
| What are the three core principles of the Belmont Report? | Respect for persons, beneficence, and justice |
| What does “respect for persons” mean? | Protecting autonomy and requiring informed consent |
| What does “beneficence” mean? | Minimizing risks and maximizing benefits to participants |
| What does “justice” mean? | Ensuring fairness in participant selection and equal treatment |
| What organization provides ethical standards for psychological research? | The American Psychological Association (APA) |
| What does IRB stand for, and what is its purpose? | Institutional Review Board; it reviews and approves research involving human subjects |
| Name two criteria IRBs use to approve research. | Risks are minimized and reasonable relative to potential benefits |
| Who are considered vulnerable populations in research? | Children, pregnant individuals, prisoners, people with disabilities, and disadvantaged individuals |
| Why do vulnerable populations need special protections? | Because they are at higher risk of coercion or harm |
| What is informed consent? | A participant’s voluntary agreement to join a study after being told the purpose, risks, and rights |
| List three components of informed consent | Purpose of research, risks involved, right to withdraw at any time |
| When is deception acceptable in research? | When justified, minimized, approved by the IRB, and followed by debriefing |
| What is debriefing? | Explaining the true purpose of a study afterward, answering questions, and minimizing harm |
| Why is debriefing important? | It corrects misconceptions and addresses potential harm |
| What is fabricating data? | Making up data that was never collected |
| What is falsifying or altering data? | Changing collected data to better support a hypothesis |
| What is omitting data? | Leaving out data to make results appear stronger than they are |
| What is plagiarism in research? | Taking another person’s ideas or words and presenting them as your own |
| Which type of fraud involves deliberately creating results from scratch? | Fabricating data |
| What role does peer review play in preventing fraud? | It allows other experts to evaluate and critique research before publication |
| How does replication help prevent fraud? | Independent researchers can confirm findings, exposing false results |
| How might collaborators prevent fraud? | By monitoring shared data and raising concerns if something seems wrong |
| Why is plagiarism considered scientific fraud? | Because it misrepresents ownership of intellectual work and undermines trust in science |
| Why are ethical guidelines necessary in psychological research? | To protect participants, ensure integrity, and maintain public trust in science |
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