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CA Psych Test 1
CA Psych Test 1 Ch. 1 - 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| recording behavior in natural settings; ecological validity but can't control for extraneous variables or observe certain behaviors | naturalistic observation |
| determine which variables are related to each other and how they are associated; also predicts behavior, but correlation does not equal causation | correlational studies |
| establish cause and effect by randomly assigning participants to an experimental or control condition; can determine causation but can't always experiment if it's not ethical | experimental study |
| ___ variables differ between E and C groups/predictors; ____ variables are tested or measured in an experiment (the outcome/behavior) | independent, dependent |
| children of different ages studied at a single time; less time-consuming and cheaper; cohort effects | cross-sectional study |
| variations in developmental outcomes observed between groups in different times, places, or conditions | cohort effect |
| children examined repeatedly over a prolonged period of time; can examine development; practice and cohort effects, participants drop out, longer and more expensive | longitudinal study |
| combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal; resources and time are expensive | cross sequential |
| a genetically informed research design in which the contribution of genes and environment to variation in traits is teased apart by comparing identical and fraternal twins | twin design |
| researchers obtain correlation between genetically related birth mothers and their adopted-away children on a trait of interest | adoption design |
| a difference in a single nucleotide base; DNA variants | single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) |
| Heritability of intelligence increases with ____ and as ____ decreases. This pattern is not found for personality variables. | age, shared environment |
| Psychological traits and disorders are associated with a large number of _____, each of which accounts for a very small amount of variability in the trait. | genetic variants |
| an estimate of the amount of variability in a trait that is due to genetic variation | heritability |
| influences that make children and adults raised in the same environment similar, accounting less for less variability than heritability | shared environment |
| influences that differ between siblings in the same family, accounting for substantial portion of variability in psychological traits | non-shared environment |
| Misc.: High heritability translates into genetic determinism | Fact: a trait with high heritability can still be strongly influenced by the environment |
| Misc.: Heritability values have implications for explaining group differences (i.e. IQ points of black children versus white children). | Fact: heritability values account for differences within a population and could be affected by environmental disadvantages (i.e., school segregation) |
| a field in which scientists study genetic and environmental contributions to psychological and physical traits. | behavioral genetics |
| a method that studies the entire genome to find out which SNPs are significantly associated with a trait or disorder | genome-wide association study |
| the continuous interplay of genes and environment to produce developmental change | gene-environment interplay |
| genetic variation among people that indirectly influences the environments to which they are exposed | gene-environment correlation |
| genetic influences on environment that occur without the individual having to do anything; parents provide both genes and environments to their children; present in childhood | passive gene-environment correlations |
| refers to the finding that many commonly studied environmental variables (SES, parenting style, divorce) are influenced in part by genes passed on from parents to children | nature of nurture |
| influences on environment that occur when individuals evoke reactions from others based on their genetic predispositions; increases between childhood and adulthood | evocative gene-environment correlation |
| influences on the environment that occur when individuals seek out or create environments based on their genetic predispositions; increases between childhood and adulthood | active gene-environment correlations |
| a situation in which environmental factors affect individuals with one genetic more than those with another genetic makeup, or when individuals with different genotypes respond differently to the same environment | gene-environment interaction |
| an individual's genetic predisposition to a disorder combines with environmental stressors to produce symptoms of a psychological disorder | diathesis-stress model of psychopathology |
| study of mechanisms by which chemicals attached to the genes regulate gene expression | epigenetics |
| a complex biochemical process in which chemical compounds called methyl groups attach themselves to a gene and reduce or cut off the expression of the gene | methylation |
| a field of study that focuses on how environmental experiences after the accessibility of the DNA structure, with downstream effects on the development of the individual | behavioral epigenetics |
| an approach that views development as arising out of multiple factors that function together as a whole, including genes, brain development, behavior and environment | developmental systems framework |
| Gottlieb proposed that development was _____. This means that development of a particular behavior or trait is not determined by any single factor or combination of factors in the system with absolute certainty. | probabilistic |
| the environment that is present for most members of a particular species during development | species-typical rearing environment |
| having a conversation about a book being read aloud, usually referring to practices with emergent readers | dialogic book-sharing |
| development in the first 2 weeks after fertilization | germinal period |
| development from the third through eighth week of prenatal development; most vulnerable period b/c major organs develop and mothers generally unaware that they are pregnant and may continue to drink, smoke, or misuse drugs | embryonic period |
| development from the ninth week until birth | fetal period |
| process by which blastocyst becomes attached to uterus; most vulnerable process in development | implantation |
| twins formed the division of a single zygote into two genetically identical organisms | monozygotic twins |
| twins formed from the fertilization of two separate ova by two separate sperm cells | dizygotic twins |
| outer layer that develops into nervous system, outer layer of skin, and sensory organs | ectoderm |
| middle layer that develops into muscles, bone, inner layers of the skin, circulatory system, and other organs | mesoderm |
| innermost layer develops into respiratory and digestive systems | endoderm |
| female identical twins are less similar physically and behaviorally than male twins because... | female twins have two copies of the X chromosome from both parents and don't have double the products of genes on the X chromosome, and one of them is randomly inactivated |
| The origin of the embryo's entire nervous system is the ____, which lengthens into the _____, folds inward, and closes to form the ___. | neural plate, neural groove, neural tube |
| defects resulting from failure of the neural tube to close due to the lack of a B-complex vitamin in the mother's diet | neural tube defect, folic acid |
| when the embryo cannot develop a brain above the level of the brainstem | anencephaly |
| failure of neural tube to close in the middle or lower regions on days 26-28; spinal cord protrudes through vertebrae | spina bifida |
| in five months, the fetus is covered with a downy hair called _____ and a white, cheesy substance called ____ that protects the fetal skin from damage due to the fetus's movements or from soaking in the amniotic fluid | lanugo, vernix |
| Which major organ is the last to mature? | the lungs |
| During the last two months, ______ are essential for temperature regulation outside the womb to develop. The mother's body passes _____ to the fetus, which will protect the infant against infection until the immune system begins functioning. | fat tissues, antibodies |
| provides a 3D image of a moving fetus | 4D ultrasound |
| at 25 days of prenatal neural development ____. At 50 days, | the fundamental structures of the brain (forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain) develop; forebrain expands and covers midbrain |
| At 100 days, the ____ begins to take shape and grows around the inner areas of the brain | cortex |
| At 20 weeks, the cortex continues to grow, while the ____ and _____ develop on top of the neural tubee. | brain stem, cerebellum |
| cells in the brain that send and receive information | neurons |
| formation of new neurons within the brain | neurogenesis |
| cells in the brain that provide neurons with nutrients and remove waste, help guide them during migration, and insulate them with myelin | glial cells |
| the migration of neurons from the place where they are formed to their final locations in the brain | neuronal migration |
| the transformation of neural stem cells into new types of neurons | neural differentiation |
| a tiny gap between the dendrites of one neuron and the axon of another that allows communication between neurons | synapses |
| In genetically male fetuses, at about 7 weeks, this gene on the Y chromosome turns on and instructs one set of structures to form into testes, epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles | SRY gene |
| In genetic females, this protein causes the male structures to wither away, allowing female internal organs (ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and inner vagina) to develop instead | COUP-TFII |
| genetic females can develop more masculine external genitalia if the absence of a particular enzyme in the adrenal glands leads to a cascade of reactions in the body that exposes the fetus to excessive testosterone | congenital adrenal hyperplasia |
| genetic males can develop female external genitalia if they are insensitive to the action of testosterone | complete androgen insensitivity |
| a structural or functional abnormality in the brain or body that is present at birth | birth defect |
| an environmental agent that disrupts the normal process of prenatal development | teratogen |
| teratogens generally have more negative effects if they are present in higher concentrations or over a longer period of time | dose |
| response to teratogens depends in part on the fetus's genetic vulnerability toa particular agent | genes |
| effects of teratogens appear to be greater when they are present in combination | cumulative effects |
| sensitive periods where certain organs are prone to exposure | timing of exposure |
| During the ___ period, teratogens most likely result in the organism's death, but in the ____ and ____ periods, the sensitive periods are different for each organ. | germinal, embryonic, fetal |
| increases the risks of miscarriage, premature birth, LBW, SIDS, asthma, cancer, and tobacco addition in children | smoking |
| constricts blood vessels in uterus, reducing ability of placenta to supply oxygen and nutrients to fetus | nicotine |
| level raised by cigarette smoke in fetal bloodstream, displaces oxygen from red blood cells | carbon monoxide |
| children with prenatal smoke exposure had _____ methylation in certain genes that have been linked to cancer. | increased |
| facial atypicalities and mental or developmental disabilities (most and earliest exposure to alcohol prentaly) | classic fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) |
| some facial and cognitive symptons | partial FAS |
| cognitive impairments but no physical atypicalities | alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder |
| It's difficult to establish cause and effect in drug use because pregnant mothers with a substance disorder are more likely to | consume alcohol or other potentially harmful substances and have poor nutrition, lack of access to prenatal care, and a continuation of these issues after the pregnancy. |
| infants are more likely to stop breathing and die if their mothers smoked cigarettes during pregnancy | sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) |
| newborns may experience withdrawal symptoms (high-pitched crying, irritability, gastrointestinal issues, and seizures) if their mothers were using heroin or other opiods during pregnancy | neonatal abstinence syndrome |
| one mechanism by which smoking cigarettes or drinking alcohol during pregnancy may alter gene expression | epigenetic alterations |
| mothers can pass diseases or the effects of diseases to their babies through the ____ and during the ____- | placenta, birth process |
| German measles, a virus that can cause multiple prenatal deficits when the mother contracts it during the first trimester | rubella |
| mothers younger than ___ and older than ____ are at high risks of birth defects (miscarriage, preterm birth, and low birth weight) | 25, 35 |
| changes to the physiology of the fetus from environmental stimuli during sensitive periods of prenatal development that result in long-term changes in health | fetal programming |
| activates HPA system, which prepares pregnant body for fight or flight; adrenaline and cortisol pass to fetus through placenta, affecting fetal brain development | stress |
| a hormone that initiates uterine contractions and stimulates other hormones, such as estrogen, that regulate uterine contractions | oxytocin |
| uterus contracts regularly, pulling on tight ring of cervix, and expanding it from less than its normal 0.1-cm diameter to about 10 cm | cervical dilation and effacement |
| uterine contractions and mother's efforts to push baby, head first, through birth canal, and the shoulders and the rest of the body slip through quickly | delivery/expulsion |
| uterine contractions push placenta, other fetal membranes, and the remainder of the umbilical cord out | placental separation |
| approaches childbirth as a natural process and uses a variety of techniques to reduce the perception of pain | Lamaze method |
| aims to reduce or eliminate the use of medications to relieve pain during childbirth and uses the partner as a coach | Bradley method |
| pain medications injected along mother's spine to block sensation from the waist down | epidural |
| an incision is made in the mother's abdomen and uterus and the baby is removed by doctors; effective when baby is in distress, placenta blocks birth canal, mother has HIV or herpes, or baby is in breech position | Cesarean section |
| the first and most important thing for newborns to do after birth is to | breathe on their own |
| a gooey substance that helps the newborn's digestive system | colostrum |
| a rating system of the physical condition of a newborn infant that assigns scores of 0-2 for five criteria: skin color, heart rate, responsiveness to stimuli, muscle tone, and respiration; Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration) | Apgar scale |
| evaluates 2 month old infant's motor control, ability to respond to people, control of their autonomic systems, and regulation of their states of consciousness | Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale |
| birth before 37th week of pregnancy | preterm |
| a term used to describe babies born weighing less than 5 1/2 pounds | low birth weight |
| a condition in which preterm infants' lungs do not produce enough surfactin, leading to respiratory problems | respiratory distress syndrome |
| an infant who weighs less than the normal range for a given gestational age (exposure to tobacco, malnutrition, or other teratogens that reduced their oxygen and nutrient supply) | small-for-date |
| practices involving skin-to-skin contact between infant and parent for an extended period every day | kangaroo care |
| consists of attentional, behavioral, and emotional problems with low levels of aggression and delinquency | behavioral phenotype |
| compares child's mind to a computer that intakes, stores, and outputs information along with directing the processing flow of information | information processing theories |
| children construct their knowledge of the world by exploring and interacting with their environments, including physical objects and people | Piaget's cognitive theory |
| 4 ecological systems interact with each other and with the child's biological characteristics | Bronfenbrenner bioecological theory |
| psychosocial crisis need to be resolved throughout lifespan | Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development |
| study of adaptive value of behavior and its evolutionary history; accounts for sensitive period of learning | Lorenz's ethological theory |
| child's immediate physical and social environment (family, classroom, peers, neighborhood, religious setting) | microsystem |
| interrelationships between two microsystems that directly affect the child (parent-teacher conferences, parent and child care provider | mesosystem |
| environments that don't affect the child directly but influence them directly by affecting the meso- and microsystems (teacher mentorship) | exosystem |
| the culture as a whole (SES, cultural attitudes and traditions, and laws) | macrosystem |
| influences that occur at a specific time in the lifespan, such as quarantining at home and attending school remotely during the pandemic | chronosystem |
| children's behavior is recorded in artificial situations | structured observation |
| record children's behavior while the researcher is a member of the group to which the child belongs; time constraints, difficulties drawing conclusions about casual relationships between experience and behavior, possibility of bias or "othering" | ethnographic methods |
| observer becomes a group member for months and takes notes on observations and analyzes children's and adult's behaviors in daily life; constructs complete portrait of life in the culture | participant observation |
| quickly obtain large amount of info from participants | questionnaires |
| obtain info about individuals that might be missed by a questionnaire and to explore and clarify individual's answers in more depth | structured interviews |
| measure cognitive abilities, psychological characteristics, and physiological activity; easily deployable to researcher to compare across populations | standardized tests |
| data on how a large # of individuals perform on a given test | norms |
| consistency of measurements across test occasions (repeatable) | reliability |
| extend to which a test measures what it was intended to measure | validity |
| intensive study of a small # of children or families that can provide a detailed portrait of the person's life or of particular aspects of development over long periods of time | case study |
| patterns of growth and change in behavior, thinking, or emotions over time | development |
| a set of rules or statements that describes, explains, and predicts various aspects of development | developmental theory |
| genetic influences versus environmental influences | nature and nurture |
| a primarily biological unfolding of events that occurs when an organism changes gradually from a simple to a more complex level | maturation |
| gradual, quantitative acquisition of new behaviors (guided by reinforcement) versus qualitatively new forms of thinking (abrupt stages, Piaget) | continuity versus discontinuity |
| degree to which behavior, emotions, thoughts, or brain functions can be modified by experience (early/late development) | plasticity |
| a range of time when the development of the organism is most sensitive to environmental stimulation | sensitive period |
| a developmental pattern in which small environment effects of child behaviors become magnified across time or age, leading to larger environmental effects or broader changes in child behavior | developmental cascade |
| childhood experiences with negative consequences for later health and development | adverse childhood experiences |
| experiences during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood that may protect against or reduce the impact of ACEs | protective and compensatory experiences |
| maintaining or exceeding typical development despite the presence of risk factors in the environment | resilience |
| the extent to which biological or environmental factors create a higher than average risk of poor developmental outcomes | vulnerability |
| organisms vary from one another due to random genetic mutations passed down to offspring that are useful for survival | Darwin's theory of evolutionary adaptation |
| attachment in human beings is a complex system of behavior involving both child and caregiver which evolved because it maximized the survival of babies | Bowlby's theory of attachment |
| babies born with innate core capacities inherited from distant human ancestors, essential to human development | Nativist theories |
| physical health and sexual problems emerge from unconscious psychological and conflicts from childhood | Freud's theory of psychosocial development |
| ever-present source of biological needs and desires (hunger, sex, aggression) | id |
| rational part that develops in early childhood to cancel id's desires and keep in with external reality | ego |
| develops between ages 3 and 6; represents rules and morals of society and acts as individual's conscience | superego |
| psychosocial crisis need to be resolved throughout lifespan | Erikson's theory of psychosocial development |
| the field of psychology being concerned with observable behavior rather than unseen mental states | behaviorism |
| a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience | learning |
| learning process in which the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly until the CS alone elicits the response originally elicited by the US | classical conditioning |
| the increase or decrease in the frequency of a response by reinforcement or punishment | operant conditioning |
| observational learning, reinforcement, punishment, , and other learning mechanisms in a social context | social learning thoery |
| children construct their knowledge of the world by exploring and interacting with their environments, including physical objects and people | Piaget's cognitive developmental theory |
| stimulus naturally eliciting an unlearned response such as a reflex | unconditioned stimulus and response |
| previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with a response | conditioned stimulus and response |
| an organized way of thinking/understanding about acting on the world | schemes |
| fitting into current schemes or changing schemas | assimilation, accommodation |
| skill learning in early and middle childhood where cognitive skills are best understood within their social and cultural context | Vygotsky's sociocultural theory |
| gap between children's ability to solve a problem independently and their ability to solve it with the help of more capable partneres | zone of proximal development |
| technique used by skilled people to help child move in ZPD | scaffolding |
| exerts control over which strategies to use in particular situations | central executive |
| explain relationship between changes in behavior or thinking with age, and changes in structures and functions of brain (MRIs, white matter tracts that form connections between neurons | developmental cognitive neuroscience theories |
| interacting influences changing continuously over time | dynamic systems theory |
| changes in any component or multiple components of the system can lead to reorganization into a more complex system over time | self-organizing principle |
| particular segment of the DNA strand that provides instructions for producing proteins | gene |
| cell duplicates DNA strand and divides into two cells; division of reproductive cells into daughter cells containing only 1 DNA strand | mitosis, meiosis |
| particular combination of alleles in an individual; observable traits or diseases shown by an individual, influenced in varying degrees by genes and the environment | genotype, phenotype |
| traits or disorders influenced by combined effects of multiple genes | polygenetic inheritance |
| extent to which gene can perform its function | gene expression |
| development arises out of multiple aspects that function together as a whole, including genes, brain development, behavior, and environment | developmental systems framework |
| the environment that is present for most members of a particular species during development | species-typical rearing environment |
Created by:
alumesi