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M(ASCP)
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What preservative is used to make wet prep, iodine slides for parasites? | 10% formalin |
| What preservative is used to make permanent slides for parasites? | PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) |
| What is the name of the stain used for wet mount slides when identifying parasites? | Ludol's iodine & D'antoni iodine |
| What is the name of the stain used for permanent slides when identifying parasites? | Trichrome (aka Gomori Wheatley/Wheatley trichrome) or Iron hematoxylin |
| Pathogenic amoeba that causes amoebic dysentery -treated with metronidazole - 1-4 nuclei -central karyosome -cigar-shaped chromatoidal bar -can contain RBC inclusion -> diagnostic | Entamoeba histolytica |
| Non-pathogenic amoeba -8um (smaller than its pathogenic "look alike") | Entamoeba hartmanii |
| Non-pathogenic amoeba - 1-32 nuclei -eccentic karyosome -thick peripheral chromatin -trophozoite phase: 1 nucleus, cytoplasmic inclusion (yeast, bacteria) | Entamoeba coli |
| Amoeba - 1-4 nuclei -oval shape -large "blot like" karyosome | Endolimax nana |
| Amoeba - 1 large nucleus -large irregularly shaped karyosome - large glycogen vacuole -trophozoite=sluggish motility (also large glycogen vacuole) | Iodamoeba butschlii |
| Pathogenic non-intestinal amoeba - causes Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) -trophozoites:slug like pseudopods, large karyosome, no peripheral chromatic - flagellate:2 flagella from broad end, jerky motility, invasive form -cysts not in humans | Naegleria fowleri |
| Free living organisms that inhabit warm lakes, ponds, puddles and can be found in pools & humidifiers -causes Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis | Acanthomoeba spp. |
| Amoeba once thought to be yeast -most common form=vacuolated form -large central vacuole (90% of cell, other 10%= ring of cytoplasm) | Blastocystis homins |
| Most prevalent parasite in U.S. & Canada -flagellate -contaminated water -malabsorption syndrome - detected in stools by colorPAC (Becton Dickinson), EIA assay, and Enterotest -treated w/ Metronidazole | Giardia lamblia |
| Non-pathogenic flagellate | Trichomonas hominis |
| Pathogenic flagellate -common sexually transmitted disease -treated w/ Metronidazole | Trichomonas vaginalis |
| Flagellate -cyst: lemon shape w/ clear hyaline knob, prominent nucleus & cytosome - trophozoite: pointed posterior, prominent nucleus, shepard's crook, spiral groove | Chilomastix mesnili |
| Flagellate that moves by pseudopodia -2 nuclei, each w/ 4-8 centrally located chromatin granules - get missed on most CAP surveys, often found w/ Pinworm & Ascaris infections | Dientamoeba fragilis |
| Ciliates -pigs are natural reservoir -largest protozoan infecting humans -cilia may be visible, macroµnucleus, cytosome | Balantidium coli |
| Nematode -pinworm (seat worm) -#1 most common helminth infection in U.S. (mostly in children) - treated w/ mebendazole -stool exam may be of low value | Enterobius vermicularis (look up pic for reference of ova and adult) |
| Nematode -roundworm -most common infection humans worldwide -bore into aveoli causing pneumonitis/pneumonia, coughed up into pharynx - treat w/ mebendazole | Ascaris lumbricoides (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Nematode -whipworm -3rd most common helminth in U.S. - mostly in southern U.S. | Trichuris trichiura (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Nematode -hookwork -prevalent in southeastern U.S. - causes anemia (1 worm consumes 0.25mL of blood/day) - non-infectious feeding=rhabditiform -infectious non-feeding=filariform -"ground itch" = bore into skin of feet -lungs coughed up & swallowed | Necator americanus (New world) & Ancylostoma duodenale (old world) (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Nematode -threadworm -rhabditiform used to differentiate from hookworm -short buccal cavity, large prominent genital primordium | Strongyloides stercoralis (look up pic for reference of adult) |
| Cestode -beef tapeworm -many uterine branches in adult | Taenia saginata (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Cestode -pork tapeworm -some uterine branches, rostellum & hooklets on scolex of adult | Taenia solium (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Cestode -fish tapeworm - anemia due to deficiency in Vit. B12 -coracidia=ciliated embryo -human=definite host | Diphyllobothrium latum (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Cestode -dog/cat tapeworm -egg packet -humans are accidental hosts | Diphlidium caninum (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Cestode -rat/mice tapeworm -humans=accidental host -adults has rostellum but no hooks -egg has polar thickening and hexacanth hooklets | Hymenolepis diminuta (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Cestode -dwarf tapeworm -no intermediate host -contaminated food/drink -autoreinfection -adult has rostellum w/ hooks -eggs have filaments & hexacanth hooklets | Hymenolepis nana (look up pic for reference of egg and adult) |
| Trematode (fluke/flatworm) -sheep liver fluke -lives in bile ducts -largest ova -operculum not always visible | Fasciola hepatica (look up pic for reference) |
| Trematode (fluke/flatworm) -intestinal fluke (small intestine) - largest ova -operculum not always seen | Fasciolopsis buski (look up pic for reference) |
| Trematode (fluke/flatworm) -oriental lung fluke -acquired by eating raw crab/crayfish -larva seen in sputum & eggs in feces -operculum rim=key identifier | Paragonimus westermani (look up pic for reference) |
| Trematode (fluke/flatworm) -oriental liver fluke (Richard Nixon fluke) -liver & gallbladder -operculum rim and terminal knob seen in ova | Clonorchis sinensis (look up pic for reference) |
| Trematode -blood fluke -found in veins of large colon -large lateral spine found on ova | Schistosoma mansoni (look up pic for reference) |
| Trematode -blood fluke - found in veins of bladder -ova has terminal spine | Schistosoma haematobium (look up pic for reference) |
| Trematode -found in veins of small intestine -ova has small lateral spine | Schistosoma japonicum (look up pic for reference) |
| Intracellular blood parasite - anopheles mosquito -schizogony phase=diagnostic form in peripheral blood smears -Giemsa/Wright's stain used for smear | Plasmodium (falciparum, malariae, & vivax) (look up pics of each for reference) |
| Intracellular blood parasite -transmitted by ticks -Texas cattle fever/Nantucket fever -appear in RBC's as somewhat pleomorphic | Babesia microti |
| Extracellular blood parasite -hemoflagellates -transmitted by tsetse fly -African sleeping sickness & Chaga's disease | Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi (reduvid bug) |
| Microfilariae (Nematodes) -causes elephantiasis -transmitted by mosquitos -tropical/subtropial climates | Wuchereria bancrofti & Brugia malayi |
| Eye worm -transmitted by mosquitos -adult worms only noticable when seen migrating across the eye | Loa Loa |
| Extracellular tissue parasite -hydatid cyst disease -treatment=surgical removal of cyst -very prevalent in sheep raising areas (Australia/New Zealand) | Echinococcus granulosus |
| Extracellular tissue parasite -eating infected pig, deer, bear meat that is undercooked -"the great imitator"=wide variety of symptoms | Trichinella spiralis |
| Extracellular tissue parasite -infects alveolar spaces in lung tissue -75% of healthy children have been exposed by age 5 -75% of AIDs patients are infected=leading cause of AIDs death | Pneumocystis carinii |
| Intracellular tissue parasite -hemoflagellates -transmitted by sand fly -can cause Kala-Azar disease (aka dum-dum fever) | Leishmania (L. tropica, L. brazillensis, L. donovani) |
| Opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised -initially zoonotic -fecal-oral & contaminated water -cell wall of epi cells & GI tract (obligate intracellular parasite) -life threatening in AIDs | Cryptosporidium parvum |
| Extracellular tissue parasite -acquired from cat feces -complications w/ pregnant women -40% of U.S. pop. has antibodies against | Toxoplasma gondii |
| CCFA - Cycosenine/Cefoxitin/fructose agar | agar used for C. diff |
| KVLB - Kanamycin/Vancomycin/Laked blood agar | agar used for Bacteroides/Prevotella |
| BBE - Bacteroides Bile Esculin | agar used for Bacteroides |
| EYA - Egg Yolk Agar | agar used for C. perfringens (lecithincase(+)) & P. acnes (lipase(+)) |
| Tinsdale media/Loffler's medium | media used for Corynebacterium diphtheriae |
| HBT - Human Blood Tween agar | agar used for Gardnerella vaginalis |
| TCBS - Thiosulfate/citrate/bile salts/sucrose agar | agar used for Vibrio |
| BCYE - Buffered charcoal yeast extract | agar used for Legionella |
| Regan Lowe/Bordet-Gengoa agar/CHB | agar used for Bordetella |
| CIN - Cefsulodin/Irgasan/Novobiocin | agar used for Yersinia |
| Selenite broth | enrichment broth to recover Salmonella/Shigella |
| EMB - Eosin Methylene Blue | agar to differentiate coli v. Aerogenes - E. coli v. Kleb. |
| stain for mold. Lactic acid enhances penetration of solution into hyphae, phenol kills the living cells & cotton blue stains the structures | Lactophenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) |
| agar used to differentiate Candida spp, enhances production of chlamydospores | Cornmeal Tween 80 agar |
| agar used for growth of Cryptococcus neoformans | Bird-seed agar |
| Superficial mycoses -black piedra -dematiaceous septate hyphae -dark, stony nodules on hair shaft | Piedraia horta (look up pic for reference) |
| Superficial mycoses -white piedra -classified as yeast -septate hyphae, blastoconidia & arthroconidia | Trichosporon spp (look up pic for reference) |
| Superficial mycoses -tinea negra -hyphae w/ annelloconidium -dark non-scaly lesions on palms of hands & soles of feet | Hortaea werneckii (look up pic for reference) |
| Superficial mycoses -tinea versicolor -yeast like -light spots on arms, face & neck -KOH preps of skin scrapings -Wood's lamp=fluorescent -budding conidia, septate hyphae (spaghetti & meatballs) | Malassezia furfur (look up pic for reference) |
| Cutaneous mycoses - Dermatophytes -dog/cat ringworm -thick walled macroconidia, spindle shape, tapered ends -few single microconidia -Woodlamp (+) | Microsporum canis (look up pic for reference) |
| Cutaneous mycoses - dermatophytes -thin walled macroconidia, not pointed -few single microconidia -Woodlamp (-) | Microsporum gypseum (look up pic for reference) |
| Cutaneous mycoses - dermatophytes -tinea capitis (scalp), mostly in children - rare macroconidia which are distorted w/ bizarre shapes -may have terminal chlamydoconidia | Microsporum audouinii (look up pic for reference) |
| Cutaneous mycoses - dermatophytes -athlete's foot & jock itch - macroconidia=paddle-like (beaver's tail) -microconidia=never present -may have chlamydoconidia | Epidermophyton floccosum (look up pic for reference) |
| Cutaneous mycoses - dermatophytes -ringworm -rare cigar shaped macroconidia -microconidia, clusters on conidiophores | Trichophyton mentagrophytes (look up pic) |
| Cutaneous mycoses - dermatophytes -athlete's foot & jock itch, ringworm -rare, long narrow pensile shaped macroconidia -single tear shaped microconidia directly on hyphae ("birds on a fence") -many microconidia | Trichophyton rubrum (look up pic) |
| Cutaneous mycoses - dermatophytes -tinea capitis in children (ringworm) -rare macroconidia, "distorted" & extremely variable -abundant teardrop microconidia on short conidiophores, may elongate to "balloon" forms -intercalary chlamydoconidia | Trichophyton tonsurans (look up pic) |
| Subcutaneous mycoses -found in soil, on plants, decaying matter -common in sphagnum moss used as mulch -rose gardener's disease -lesions appear on arms/legs and follow lymph channels -dimorphic fungi=septate hyphae w/ conidia in shape of rosette | Sporothrix schenckii (look up pic) |
| Subcutaneous mycoses -chromoblastomycosis (verrucous dermatitis) -flask shaped phialides w/ tightly packed conidia (tight bunch of flowers (Medusa)) | Phialophora spp (look up pic) |
| Subcutaneous mycoses -chromoblastomycosis (verrucous dermatitis) -various arrangements of conidia | Fonsecaea spp (look up pic) |
| Subcutaneous mycoses -chromoblastomycosis (verrucous dermatitis) -conidia resemble a tree (wheat head), produces conidia in chains | Cladosporium spp (look up pic) |
| Subcutaneous mycoses -elevated lesions -may have black to reddish dots -may spread to surrounding tissues through lymphatic system -almost always on extremeties -not painful unless there is secondary bacterial infection | Chromoblastomycosis (verrucous dermatitis) |
| Subcutaneous mycoses -eumycotic mycetoma -sexual(perfect fungi) and asexual(fungi imperfecti) pus contains granules composed of compact mycelial masses -sealed off sac, when full, ruptures -> spills out ascospores | Pseudallescheria boydii (look up pic) |
| Systemic mycoses -"valley fever" and "desert rheumatism" -arthroconidia in dust are inhaled -tissue damage due to proteinase released by the rupturing spherules - yeast stage=barrel shaped arthroconidia that alternate w/ empty cell walls | Coccidioides immitis (look up pic) |
| Systemic mycoses -endemic along Ohio, Missouri & Mississippi river deltas - soil enriched w/ feces of birds (pigeons) & bats -"caves disease" or "spelunker's disease" -inhaled microconidia -direct sputum or bronchial washing -mold stage & yeast | Histoplasma capsulatum (look up pic) |
| Systemic mycoses -endemic in Mississippi & Ohio river basins -North American blastomycosis -mold stage="lollipop" conidia w/ short conidiophores -yeast stage=thick walled budding yeast w/ broad base attachment | Blastomyces dermatitidis (look up pic) |
| Systemic mycoses -South American blastomycosis -causes cutaneous & mucosal lesions -mold stage="lollipop" conidia -yeast stage=multiple budding around central yeast cell (mariner's wheel) | Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (look up pic) |
| Yeast -germ tube (+) -urease (-) -growth @ 42c -cornmeal=single terminal chlamydospores, blastoconidia & pseudohyphae | Candida albicans (look up pic) |
| Yeast -germ tube (+) -cannot grow @ 42c -cornmeal agar=clusters of blastoconidia & clusters of terminal chlamydospores | Candida dubliniensis (look up pic) |
| Yeast -germ tube (-) -cornmeal agar=pseudohyphae w/ elongated blastoconidia | Candida krusei (look up pic) |
| Yeast - germ tube (-) -cornmeal agar=pseudohyphae w/ blastoconidia singly or small groups | Candida tropicalis (look up pic) |
| Yeast -germ tube (-) -cornmeal agar=only blastoconidia, no pseudohyphae | Candida glabrata (look up pic) |
| Yeast -always encapsulated (polysaccharide) -pigeon fecal flora w/ human infection from inhalation -causes meningitis, pulmonary disease & septicemia -major infection in AIDs patients -urea positive -India ink -cornmeal agar=blastoconidia | Cryptococcus neoformans (look up pic) |
| Opportunistic fungi -commonly found in soil -aseptate hyaline molds -perfect fungi -lung and paranasal sinus infections | Zygomycetes (3 genera) |
| Zygomycetes -most common in diabetic patients suffering from ketoacidosis -common bread mold -prominent rhizoids at the base of sporangiophores | Rhizopus spp (look up pic) |
| Zygomycetes -commonly found in diabetic patients suffering from ketoacidosis -infection usually begins in sinuses where sporangiospores are inhaled -rhizoides are "intranodal"=between sporangiophore | Lichtheimia spp (look up pic) |
| Zygomycetes -rhzoids absent | Mucor spp (look up pic) |
| Hyaline opportunistic fungi -second most common isolated fungus in clinical lab after Candida spp -conidia readily found in environment worldwide -most frequent cause of disease in bone marrow transplant recipients -end of conidiophore is "swollen" | Aspergillus spp (look up pic) |
| Hyaline opportunistic fungi -ubiquitous throughout the world -one of the most common lab contaminants -resembles paint brushes -conidia in long chains | Penicillium spp (look up pic) |
| Hylaine opportunistic fungi -arthroconidia are breathed into lungs & cause pulmonary disease in immunocompromised -septate hyphae w/ consecutive non alternating arthroconidia | Geotrichum spp (look up pic) |
| CNSS -most common aerobic bacteria -nosocomial infections (prosthetic devices, catheters, IVs) | Staphylococcus epidermidis |
| CNSS -UTIs in sexually active women & older males -Novobiocin resistant -adheres to epithelial cells lining urogenital tract (cystitis) | Staphylococcus saprophyticus |
| CNSS -capable of causing osteomyelitis & septicemia -most known for causing aggressive endocarditis | Staphylococcus lugdunensis |
| HACEK group -fastidious organisms commonly found in oral cavity -associated w/ infective endocarditis | Haemophilus, Aggregatibacter, Cardiobacterium, Eikenella, & Kingella |
| -gram negative diplococci -fastidious (only grows on choc) -MTM & NYC -capnophile -catalase & oxidase (+) | Neisseria gonorrhoeae |
| -gram negative diplococci -fastidious (only grows on choc) -capnophile -MTM & NYC -catalase & oxidase (+) -Maltose (+) | Neisseria meningitidis |
| NYC - New York City agar -vancomycin -colistin -Amphotericin B(inhibits yeast) -Trimethoprim lactate | agar used for Neisseria, Kingella & Acinetobacter |
| -gram negative diplococci -oxidase & catalase (+) -not fastidious -"hockey puck" colony morphology -Blac (+) -DNase (+) | Moraxella catarrhalis |
| -gram negative rod -indole (-) -ornithine (+) -citrate (+) -motility (+) -MAC, moderate mucoid lac. (+) | Enterobacter spp. |
| -gram negative rod -citrate (+) -indole(-) -H2S(+) -ornithine (-) -MAC delayed lac. (+) | Citrobacter freundii |
| -gram negative rod -citrate (+) -indole (+) -H2S(-) -ornithine (+) -MAC, delayed lac (+) | Citrobacter koseri |
| -gram negative rod -MAC, lac (+) -indole (-) -citrate (+) -ornithine (-) -motility (-) | Klebsiella pneumoniae |
| -gram negative rod -MAC, lac (+) -indole (+) -citrate (+) -ornithine (-) -motility (-) | Klebsiella oxytoca |
| -gram negative rod -MAC, delayed lac (+) -DNase (+) -citrate (+) -ornithine (+) -indole (-) | Serratia spp. |
| -gram negative rod -H2S(-) -PAD (+) -urease (+) -citrate (-) -ornithine (+) | Morganella spp. |
| Antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis | -Cephalosporin -Penicillins -Carbapenems -Glycopeptides |
| Antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis (30s) | -Aminoglycosides -Tetracyclines |
| Antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis (50s) | -Macrolides -Lincosamides |
| Antibiotics that inhibit folate synthesis | -Sulfonamides |
| Antibiotics that inhibit DNA synthesis | -Fluoroquinolones |
| Examples of aminoglycosides and what they treat | Streptomycin and Gentamicin (Gram -) |
| Examples of cephalosporins and what they treat | Ceftriaxone and Cefepime (Gram -/+) |
| Examples of tetracyclines and what they treat | Doxycycline and Minocycline (Gram -/+) |
| Examples of penicillins and what they treat | Ampicillin and Amoxicillin (Gram +/-) |
| Examples of sulfonamides and what they treat | Sulfasalazine and Sulfamethoxazole (SXT) (Gram +/-) |
| Examples of fluoroquinolones and what they treat | Ciprofloxacin and Levofloxacin (Gram -/+) |
| Antibiotics commonly used to treat gram negative rods | Aminoglycosides, carbapenems, fluoroquinolones and monobactam |
| Examples of macrolides and what they treat | Azithromycin and Erythromycin (Gram +) |
| Examples of carbapenems and what they treat | Meropenem and Ertapenem (Gram -/+) |
| Examples of lincosamides and what they treat | Clindamycin (Gram +) |
| Examples of glycopeptides and what they treat | Vancomycin (Gram +) |
| Antibiotics commonly used to treat gram positive cocci | Penicillins, vancomycin, daptomycin, and cephalosporins (others as well depending on cocci) |
| What do 1st generation cephalosporins treat? | Gram + and few enterobacteriacea -Cefaxolin and cephalexin |
| What do 2nd generation cephalosporins treat? | most enterobacteriacea, some BL+ and anaerobes -Cefoxitin and cefaclor |
| What do 3rd generation cephalosporins treat? | many enterobacteriacea, many BL+ and used at lower doses than 1st generation -Ceftriaxone and Ceftazidime |
| What do 4th generation cephalosporins treat? | wide spectrum of G-, resistant to many G- and BL+ -Cefepime |
| Gram positive pleomorphic rod -catalase (-) -H2S production on TSI tube -causes clubbing of digits and joints -occupational hazard for farmers, meat packing plant workers, vets and butchers | Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae |
| Spirochete -lives naturally only in humans -4 phases (chancre, secondary, latent, and tertiary) | Treponema pallidum (Syphilis) |
| -causes lyme disease -transmitted by ticks -treated w/ doxy in adults and penicillin in children | Borrelia burgdorferi |
| -causes Relapsing fever -spirochetes are observed in blood smears taken during periods of recurrent fever -treat w/ doxy or erythro (pregnant women & children) | Borrelia recurrentis |
| -zoonotic spirochete -contact w/ urine of infected animals or indirectly w/ spirochetes in contaminated areas -infection can lead to hemorrhaging -intravenous penicillin used to treat -rodent control can limit spread | Leptospira interrogans (Leptospirosis) |
| Anaerobic gram - rods | Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Porphyromonas, and Prevotella |
| Anaerobic sporeforming gram + rods | Clostridium |
| Anaerobic non-sporeforming gram + rods | Actinomyces, Propionibacterium, Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Lactobacillus, and Mobiluncus |
| Anaerobic cocci | Gram +: Peptostreptococcus Gram -: Veillonella |
| 3 species in Mycobacterium complex | -M. tuberculosis -M. bovis -M. africanum |
| Nontuberculous Mycobacterium -opportunistic pathogen in AIDs patients | M. avium-intracellulare complex |
| Processing procedure for Mycobacterium | -Digestion (liquefy sample w/ N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NALC)) -Decontamination (kills non-myco organisms prior to plating (2% NaOH) -centrifugation to concentrate |
| Typical pneumonia pathogens | -Streptococcus pneumonia -Klebsiella pneumonia -Haemophilus influenzae |
| Atypical pneumonia pathogens | -Mycoplasma pneumoniae -Chlamydia pneumoniae -Legionella pneumoniae |
| Causes Rocky mountain spotted fever -transmitted by dog tick in east and wood tick in west -most cases in eastern U.S. | Rickettsia rickettsii |
| -causes Rickettsial pox -transmitted by mouse mites -mild fever and rash | Rickettsia akari |
| -causes epidemic typhus -transmitted by lice -high fever, rash, cardiovaascular collapse -75% death rate | Rickettsia prowazekii |
| -causes endemic typhus -transmitted by fleas carried on rodents in southern and gulf coast states | Rickettsia typhi |
| -causes scrub typhus -transmitted by mites (chiggers) -in Asia & southwest pacific -milder form of typhus | Rickettsia tsutsugamushi |
| -causes human monocytic ehrlichiosis -resembles lyme disease -elementary (reticulate) and initial bodies | Ehrlichia chaffeensis |
| - Q-fever -obligate intracellular parasite -zoonotic disease of sheep, goats, and cattle (occupational hazard) | Coxiella burnetii |
| -smallest known bacteria -no cell wall -normal flora in mucosal surfaces of oropharynx, URT, & genitourinary -"walking pneumonia" -community acquired | Mycoplasma pneumoniae |
| Transcription in viral replication of Influenza | RNA-dependent RNA transcriptase -makes complementary +ssRNA -supplied by the virus -no proofreading capability |
| Translation in viral replication of Influenza | -mRNA->viral proteins |
| H subtypes of influenza found in humans | H1, H2, & H3 |
| N subtypes of influenza found in humans | N1 & N2 |
| -minor antigenic changes in HA & NA due to random accumulation of point mutations -RNA transcriptase lacks proofreading capability -takes place about every 2-3 years | Antigenic drift |
| -major antigenic changes -reassortment of RNA segments of 2 diff influenza strains -occurs between animal & human influenza strains -occurs every 10 years | Antigenic shift |
| Body fluids that AIDs can be spread through | -blood -semen -vaginal secretions -breast milk |
| What binds to CD-4 receptor for HIV infection? | gp120 |
| Where are CD-4 receptors found? | -macrophages -helper T-lymphocytes -Cytotoxic (activated) T lymphocytes -brain cells |
| What is cell mediated immunity? | -infected helper T lymphocytes unable to active cytotoxic T lymphocytes and cell mediated immunity shuts down |
| What is antibody mediated immunity? | -unable to active B-lymphocytes, antibody mediated immunity shuts down |
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Kylem2