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PSY120 Exam 2 Purdue
Professor Caroline Kraft Malone
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Sensory Receptors | specialized neurons that respond to specific types of stimuli |
| Sensation | occurs when sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli |
| Absolute Threshold | minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time |
| Just Noticeable Difference | the minimum difference in stimuli required to detect a change or a difference between stimuli |
| Perception | way that sensory information is interpreted, organized, and consciously experienced |
| Bottom-up Processing vs. Top-down | Bottom-up: system in which perceptions are built from sensory input. Top-down: interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts |
| Sensory Adaptation | not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time |
| Inattentional Blindness | Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention |
| Signal Detection Theory | change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state |
| Amplitude | height of a wave, measured from the peak to the trough |
| Wavelength | length of a wave, measured from peak to peak. longer = red, medium = green, short = blue |
| Frequency | number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period, measured in Hz |
| Path of vision | 1.Pupil 2.Iris 3.Lens 4.Fovea 5.Photoreceptors 6.Ganglion Cells 7.Optic Nerve 8.Brain |
| Blind Spot | a point of no receptors, where information exits the eye, where we cannot respond to visual information |
| Cones | Phototopic (daytime) vision. Work best in bright light conditions. High-acuity color information. Located in the fovea |
| Rods | Scotopic (nighttime) vision. Work best in low light conditions. High-sensitivity. Allows for low-acuity vision in dim light. Involved in the perception of movement in our peripheral vision. Located in the periphery of the retina. |
| Optic Chiasm | where the optic nerve of each eye merges in an X-shape. Information from the right goes to the left and from the left goes to the right. Information is then sent to the occipital lobe. |
| The "what" pathway | Object recognition and identification |
| The "where/how" pathway | Location in space. How one might interact with a particular visual stimulus. |
| Trichromatic theory | All colors can be produced by combining red, green, and blue. Applies to the retina where color vision is controlled by three types of cones |
| Opponent-process theory | Color is coded in opponent pairs. Some cells are excited by one of the opponent colors and are inhibited by the other. Applies to cells after the retina |
| Afterimage | continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus. |
| Binocular disparity | slightly different view of the world that each eye receives |
| Linear perspective | when two parallel lines seem to converge |
| Interposition | the partial overlap of objects. |
| Color Blindness | X-linked trait typically occurring in men |
| Figure | the focus of the visual field |
| Ground | the background |
| Auditory System Parts - 3 | 1. Outer - pinna and tympanic membrane 2. Middle - the three ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes 3. Inner - cochlea and basilar membrane |
| Path of sound | 1.Auditory Canal 2.Tympanic Membrane (vibrates) 3.Ossicles 4.Cochlea 5.Hair cells 6.Auditory Nerve 7.Inferior Colliculus 8.Medial Geniculate Nucleus 9.Auditory Cortex |
| Temporal Theory | Frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron. not only theory because some cells cannot fire any faster. |
| Place Theory | Different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies |
| Interaural level difference | sound coming from one side of the body is more intense at the closest ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it passes through the head. |
| Interaural timing difference | small difference in the time at which a given sound wave arrives at each ear |
| Conductive hearing loss | Problem delivering sound energy to the cochlea. Associated with a failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles. Due to blockages, holes, fluid, and ossicle issues. |
| Sensorineural hearing loss | Failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain. Due to aging, head trauma, exposure to extreme noise, illnesses, and genetic predisposition. |
| Taste Buds | groupings of taste receptor cells with hair-like extensions that protrude into the central pore of the taste bud. Have a life cycle of 10 days to 2 weeks. Tastants - in saliva and taste pores - opening of taste buds |
| Path of taste | 1.Taste molecules 2.Taste Receptors 3.Neurons 4. Brain |
| Olfactory Receptor Cells | Contain small hair-like extensions which serve as the site for odor molecules to interact with chemical receptors located on these extensions |
| Path of smell | 1.Odor molecules 2.Odor Receptors 3.Olfactory bulb 4.Olfactory Nerve 5.Olfactory Cortex |
| Pheromones | chemical messages sent by another individual |
| Meisnerr’s corpuscles | respond to pressure and lower-frequency vibrations |
| Pacinian corpuscles | detect transient pressure and higher-frequency vibrations. |
| Merkel’s disks | respond to light pressure |
| Ruffini corpuscles | detect stretch |
| Thermoception | temperature perception |
| Nociception | sensory signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain. |
| Vestibular sense | contributes to our ability to maintain balance and body posture |
| Reflexes | motor/neural reactions to a specific stimulus. simpler than instincts, involve activity of specific body parts, and involve primitive centers of the CNS. |
| Instincts | behaviors triggered by a broader range of events. more complex, involve movement of the organism as a whole, and involve higher brain centers. |
| Associative Learning | when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment |
| Classical Conditioning | process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events - dogs and bell for food |
| Unconditioned Stimulus | stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (food) |
| Unconditioned Response | a natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus (salivation in response to food) |
| Neutral Stimulus | stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (ringing a bell – does not cause salivation by itself prior to conditioning). paired repetitively with UCS |
| Conditioned Stimulus | stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. |
| Conditioned Response | the behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus |
| Higher-order conditioning | an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus so that the new stimulus elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus being presented |
| Acquisition | the initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. |
| Extinction | decrease in the conditioned response when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS |
| Spontaneous recovery | the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period |
| Stimulus discrimination | when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar |
| Stimulus generalization | when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus |
| Habituation | learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change |
| Little Albert Experiment | Watson exposed Little Albert to certain stimuli and conditioned to fear them. 1. Presented with neutral stimuli 2.paired stimuli with a loud sound to cause fear. 3. After repeated pairings, Little Albert became fearful of the stimulus |
| Operant conditioning | B.F. Skinner - organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences |
| The Skinner Box | placed animals inside a chamber containing a lever that when pressed causes food to be dispensed as a reward |
| Positive reinforcement | something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior. grades, paychecks, or praise |
| Negative reinforcement | something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior. beeping sound of a car or credit card terminal |
| Positive punishment | something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. getting scolded or spanked |
| Negative punishment | something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. getting a toy or privilege taken away. |
| Shaping | instead of rewarding only the target behavior, we reward successive approximations of a target behavior |
| Primary reinforcers | those that have innate reinforcing qualities (e.g. food, water, sleep, sex, pleasure). The value of these reinforcers does not need to be learned |
| Secondary reinforcers | those that have no inherent value. There value is learned and becomes reinforcing when linked with a primary reinforcer (tokens) |
| Continuous reinforcement | when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior |
| Partial reinforcement | the organism does not get reinforced every time they display the desired behavior |
| Fixed ratio | reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (factory workers being paid for every x number of items manufactured) |
| Variable ratio | reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (gambling) |
| Fixed interval | reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (patients take pain relief medication at set times) |
| Variable interval | reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (checking facebook). |
| Cognitive map | a mental picture of the layout an environment |
| Latent learning | learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it |
| Observational learning | learning by watching others and then imitating using a model |
| Vicarious reinforcement | process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behavior |
| Vicarious punishment | process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model’s behavior |
| Bobo Doll Experiment | studied modeling of aggressive and violent behaviors. children watched adults be aggressive to bobo dolls, adults were either punished or praised, then children were able to interact with bobo doll. if the adult was praised the child was more aggressive. |
| Concepts | categories of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories. used to show relationships and can be either concrete or abstract. |
| Prototype | the best example or representation of a concept |
| Natural Concepts | Created “naturally” through either direct or indirect experience |
| Artificial Concepts | Defined by a specific set of characteristics. |
| Schema | a mental construct consisting of a collection of related concepts. automatically make assumptions about the person/object/situation |
| Role Schema | makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave |
| Event Schema | a set of routine or automatic behaviors. make habits difficult to break |
| Lexicon | the words of a given language |
| Grammar | the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon |
| Phoneme | a basic sound unit (ah, eh,) |
| Morphemes | the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning |
| Semantics | the meaning we derive from morphemes and words. |
| Syntax | the way words are organized into sentences. |
| Noam Chomsky | proposed that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. thought that language would still develop in absence of instructions |
| Critical period | proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life |
| Trial and error | continue trying different solutions until problem is solved |
| Algorithm | step-by-step problem-solving formula |
| Heuristic | general problem-solving framework. short cuts or rule of thumb |
| Working-backwards | begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result. breaking tasks into smaller steps |
| Functional fixedness | inability to perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for |
| Anchoring bias | tendency to focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. |
| Confirmation bias | tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs |
| Hindsight bias | leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it wasn’t |
| Representative bias | tendency to unintentionally stereotype someone or something |
| Availability heuristic | tendency to make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision |
| Crystalized intelligence | acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it - knowing facts. |
| Fluid intelligence | the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems - knowing how to do something |
| Triarchic theory of intelligence | between creative, analytical, and practical intelligence |
| Multiple Intelligence theory | Howard Gardner proposed that each person possesses at least 8 intelligences making up emotional intelligence |
| IQ | intelligence quotient - a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence |
| Stanford-Binet | developed an intelligence test to use on children to see who might have difficulty in school. Terman modified work by standardizing the administration of testing children = a norm |
| David Wechsler Intelligence | the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. made a new IQ test |
| Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) | tapped into a variety of verbal and nonverbal skills. one of the most extensively used intelligence tests |
| Flynn Effect | each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last |
| Bell Curve | represents all data of IQ scores average is 100. between 85-115 |
| Nature perspective | intelligence is inherited from a person’s parents. |
| Nurture perspective | intelligence is shaped by a child’s developmental environment |
| Dysgraphia | A learning disability resulting in a struggle to write legibly and spell properly - 5% to 20% of population |
| Dyslexia | An inability to correctly process letters or impairment in the ability to read and spell - 10% to 20% of population |
| Dyscalculia | Difficulty with math computation - 3% to 7% of population |
| ADHD | a neurodevelopmental disorder of executive functioning - 11% of population. Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity |
| Sternberg’s Investment Theory of Creativity | Creativity stems from six factors - intellectual skills, knowledges, open-minded thinking style, willingness to step out of the box, motivation and environment supporting it |
| Convergent thinking | finding the “best” or “only” answer to a problem (IQ tests) |
| Divergent Thinking | finding a variety of ideas or solutions to a problem (Creativity) |
| Ideational Fluency | psychometric approach used to measure creativity via divergent thinking tasks. shows how many different ideas someone can come up with at one time in response to a problem |
| Proximity | The idea that things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together |
| Similarity | things that are alike tend to be grouped together |
| Continuity | we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines |
| Papillae | filiform, circumvallate, foliate, and fungiform |
| Supertaster | have heightened sensitivity to some bitter tastes |
| Taste + Smell | collide - 80% of taste is due to smell |
| Encoding | involves the input of information into the memory system. connects new concepts to existing concepts and organizes it with similar information |
| Automatic processing | encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. done with conscious awareness. |
| Effortful processing | encoding of details that takes time and effort. what you've studied or recently learned. |
| Semantic encoding | encoding of words and their meanings. most effective form of encoding. attaching meaning to information makes it easier to recall later |
| Visual encoding | encoding of images. words that create a mental image like concrete words are easier to remember than abstract words. |
| Acoustic encoding | encoding of sounds |
| Self-reference effect | the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance |
| Storage | the retention of the encoded information |
| Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory | information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory. based on the belief that memories are processed the same way that a computer processes information. sensory memory, short-term memory, then long-term |
| Baddeley and Hitch model | model of storage where short-term memory has different forms depending on the type of information received 1. Visuospatial sketchpad. 2. Episodic buffer. 3. Phonological loop |
| Sensory memory | storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. stored for up to a couple of seconds |
| Stroop Effect | discovered while studying sensory memory and describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word are different |
| Short-term / working memory | a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. lasts about 20 seconds. capacity is usually about 7 items |
| Memory consolidation | transfer of STM to long-term memory |
| Long-Term Memory | the continuous storage of information. has no limit and is like the information you store on the hard drive of a computer |
| Explicit (declarative) memory | memories of facts and events we can consciously remember and recall/declare |
| Semantic | knowledge about words, concepts and language. such as knowing who the President is |
| Episodic | information about events we have personally experienced. such as remembering your 5th birthday party |
| Implicit memory | memories that are not part of our consciousness. formed through behaviors |
| Procedural | stores information about how to do things. skills and actions, like riding a bike |
| Emotional conditioning | behaviors that are learned such as a fear of spiders - Little Albert |
| Retrieval | the act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness |
| Recall | being able to access information without cues. used for a free-response test |
| Recognition | being able to identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. used for a multiple choice test |
| Relearning | learning information that you previously learned. learning a language after after being taught it in high school |
| Amygdala | Involved in fear and fear memories. Processes emotional information important in encoding memories at a deeper level and memory consolidation |
| Hippocampus | Associated with explicit memory, recognition memory and spatial memory. Damage leads to an inability to process new declarative memories |
| Cerebellum | Plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano and classical conditioning |
| Prefrontal cortex | Appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks. Encoding is related to left frontal activity. Information retrieval is related to right. |
| Neurotransmitters | Epinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Glutamate, and Acetylcholine |
| Arousal Theory | strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories due to NTM release |
| Flash bulb memory | a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations such as an assassination or the moon landing |
| Amnesia | the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma |
| Anterograde vs Retrograde | Anterograde is the inability to learn new information post-trauma and Retrograde is the loss of memory of past events |
| Construction | formulation of new memories |
| Reconstruction | process of bringing up old memories |
| Suggestibility | distortion type - the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories |
| Eyewitness Misidentification | police identification procedures can lead to alterations in an eyewitnesses memory leading to misidentification |
| Misinformation Effect | after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event |
| Repressed memories | memories typically of traumatic events that are hidden in the brain and can lead to psychological distress in adulthood. |
| Recovered Memories | bringing back these repressed memories through hypnosis and guided imagery techniques |
| Forgetting | loss of information from long-term memory |
| Encoding Failure | occurs when the memory is never stored in our memory in the first place |
| Transience | forgetting type - accessibility of memory decreases over time (storage decay) |
| Absentmindedness | forgetting type - forgetting caused by lapses in attention |
| Blocking | forgetting type - accessibility of information is temporarily blocked (aka tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon) |
| Misattribution | distortion type - source of memory is confused |
| Bias | distortion type - memories distorted by current belief system |
| Storage Decay | occurs over time when unused information tends to fade away |
| Proactive interference | old information hinders recall of new information |
| Retroactive interference | new information hinders recall of old information |
| Rehearsal | conscious repetition of information to be remembered |
| Chunking | organizing information into manageable bits or chunks |
| Elaborative rehearsal | when you think about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory |
| Mnemonic devices | memory aids that help us organize information for encoding |
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