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midterm
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| when you switch high-power to low-power objective lens of a compound light microscope, the area of the low power field will appear | smaller and brighter |
| nucleus | - control center of a cell -hold the cells DNA - regulates cell growth and cell reproduction -regulates gene expression -where RNA occurs |
| chloroplasts | -organelles found in plant cells and some algae -responsible for photosynthesis -essential for capturing light energy and converting it into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis |
| ribosomes | essential cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis -they can be found floating freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum -forms rough er -crucial for translating genetic information into proteins |
| nucleolus | -prominent structure within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells -key role in the production of ribosomes |
| centriole | -cylindrical cell structure - plays a role cilia and flagella -essential for cell division and the ordination of the cells microtubule network |
| cilia | -small, hair-like structures on the surface of certain cells -composed of microtubules arranged in a specific pattern and covered by the cell membrane -senses environmental changes |
| flagella | -long, whip like structures that protrude from the cell body and are used for locomotion -some eukaryotic cells such as sperm cells, use flagella for movement -crucial for allowing cells to navigate their environments effectively |
| cell membrane | -also known as the plasma membrane, crucial component of all cells -primarly composed of a phospholipid bilayer, with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates -has selective permeability -acts as a barrier -plays a role in cell signaling and communication - specialized proteins facilitate the transport of molecules across the membrane -maintains homeostasis |
| cell wall | -rigid layer that surround the cell membrane in plant cells, fungal cells, and bacteria cells -made up of cellulose, a complex carbohydrate (in plants) - supports, protects, maintains the shape of the cell -regulates the intake and retention of water, preventing the cell from bursting in hypotonic environments |
| Golgi apparatus | -essential organelle in eukaryotic cells -has a series of flatted, membrane bound sacs called cristernae, stacked with a receding side and shipping side -modifies proteins and lipids that have been synthesized in the ER -sorts and packages modified molecules into vesicles, which are then transported to their specific destinations within or outside the cell -plays role in formation of lysosomes |
| vacuole | -small vacuole in animal cells, large vacuole in plant cells -storage, stores nutrients, waste products, water, and pressure -helps cells grow by absorbing water and expanding |
| lysosome | -refered to as the cells digestive system due to their role in breaking down various biomolecules -break down biomolecules, proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids -digests excess or worn out organelle, food particles, engulfed virus, or bacteria -help in removing waste products from cells -destroy pathogens -suicide cell |
| endoplasmic reticulum | -comes in two forms, (rough ER and smooth ER) -plays vital role in the production, processing, and transport of proteins and lipids |
| rough endoplasmic reticulum | -covered with ribosomes on its surface, giving it a rough appearance -involved in the synthesis and processing of proteins |
| smooth endoplasmic reticulum | -lacks ribosomes, giving it a smooth appearance -involved in the synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detox of drugs and poisons, storage of calcium ions |
| mitochondria | -powerhouse of the cell -double membrane -outer membrane is smooth while inner membrane has cristae -generates ATP with cellular respiration -has its own DNA |
| cytoplasm | -jelly like substance within the cell membrane that surrounds the cells organelles -glycolysis occurs here -maintains cells inner environment |
| phospholipid bilayer | -has hydrophilic head -hydrophobic tail -two layers of phospholipids that allow the cell membrane to be flexible and fluid |
| hydrophilic | attracted to water |
| hydrophobic | repelled by water |
| what are the two types of cell membrane proteins? | receptor protein and transport proteins |
| transport protein | channel so molecules can enter and exit the cell |
| receptor protein | spherically shaped proteins that aid in cell communication |
| cellular transport | the control of movements of materials into and out of the cell two types: passive and active |
| passive transport | -osmosis, facilitated diffusion, diffusion -from high to low concentrations -without the usage of ATP molecules |
| diffusion | -movement of molecules from high to low concentration -does not require ATP |
| facilitated diffusion | -movement of molecules from high to low concentration using a protein channel -does not require ATP |
| dynamic equilibrium | -molecules continuously causing equal concentration of molecules on both sides of the membrane |
| selectively permeable cell membrane | -cell membrane selects which materials enter and exit the cell based on size and charge -harmful substances (bacteria and viruses) may be able to enter the cell - small molecules easily diffuse through the cell membrane -large molecules cannot easily past through the cell membrane and they need to be digesting into their building blocks |
| osmosis | -water molecules diffuse from high to low water concentration -no energy required |
| hypotonic solution | -hypo (low) salt levels of water -cell will grow |
| hypertonic solution | -hyper (high) salt levels of water -cell will shrink |
| what occurs when cells r in distilled water | -water movs into the cell from high to low water concentration -animal cells swell and burst -plant cells do NOT burst due to their cell wall |
| what occurs when cells r in salt solution | -water moves out of the cell from high to low water concentration -animal cells shrink -plant cells undergoes plasmolysis where cytoplasm pulls away from the cell wall |
| isotonic solution | -the water concentration on both sides of the membrane is equal ex: blood |
| periodic table | -organizes the known elements based on their properties and atomic numbers |
| proton | a subatomic particle with a positive charge |
| neutron | a subatomic particle with a neutral charge |
| electrons | a subatomic particle with a negative charge |
| bohr models | shows the arrangement of electrons in different energy levels or shells around the nucleus.- 2,8,8,8,8, |
| significance of the carbon atom | -backbone of all organic molecules -can form four covalent bonds with other atoms, allowing them to create complex and diverse structures such as chins, rings, and branches -carbon is the building block of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids |
| valence number | -the number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom that can participate in forming chemical bonds with other atoms |
| unpaired vs paired electrons | -unpaired electrons are significant because they often make molecules more reactive because they can easily form bonds with other atoms or molecules to achieve a more stable electron configuration. -paired electrons are more stable -unpaired electrons want to bond |
| covalent bonds | -a type of chemical where two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons, which allows each atom to achieve a more stable electron configuration -they can be single, double, or triple, depending on how many pairs of electrons are shared |
| single covalent bond | -one pair of electrons is shared between two atoms (H-H in hydrogen molecule) |
| double covalent bond | -two pairs of electrons are shared (O=O in an oxygen molecule) |
| triple covalent bond | -three pairs of electrons are shared (nitrogen molecules) |
| polar covalent bonds | polar covalent binds occur when two atoms share electrons unequally -this happens because one atom has a higher electronegativity -this create a partial negative charge on the electronegative atom, and a partial positive charge on the other ex: h20 |
| non-polar covalent bonds | occur when two atoms share electrons equal because they have similar or identical electronegativities. -no charge on the atoms -electrons distributed equall ex: N2 |
| ionic bond | -type of chemical bond formed between two atoms when one atom donates one of more of it electrons to another atom. -this transfer of electrons results in the formation of positively charged ions and negatively charged ions -the electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions holds them together ex: sodium chloride |
| hydrogen bond | -weak bond that occurs when a hydrogen atom, which is covalently bonded to a more electronegative atom is attracted to another type of electronegative atom. -intermoleculular force |
| intermolecular force | -the forces of attraction of repulsion between molecules -forces are generally weaker than intramolecular force |
| intramolecular force | -the forces that had atoms together within a molecule -includes covalent bonds, ionic bonds, and metallic bonds -stronger then intermolecular force |
| what is the strength in relationship between covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds | covalent bonds are the strongest, then ionic bonds, then hydrogen bonds ( covalent > ionic> hydrogen) |
| what do ionic bonds form | compounds |
| what do covalent bonds form | molecules |
| ions | atoms or molecules that have gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net charge the two types of ions are: cations and anions |
| cations | -positively charged ions that form when an atom loses one or more electrons |
| anions | -negatively charged ions that form when an atom gains one or more electrons |
| what are the most abundant elements of living systems? | carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur |
| isotope | - a atom without a charge, has the same number of electrons and protons but a different number of neutrons -isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different mass number ex: c14 |
| pH | a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is -ranges from 0 to 14 -7 being neutral |
| acidic solution | pH less than 7 ex:lemon juice and vinegar |
| neutral solution | pH of 7 ex:pure water |
| basic solution | pH greater than 7 ex: baking soda and bleach |
| pH scale | the pH scale is logarithmic, meaning each whole number change represents a tenfold increase or decrease in acidity ex: a solution with a pH of 4 is ten times more acidic than ones with a pH of 5 |
| H+ (hydrogen ions) in pH | when the concentration of H+ ions is high, the solution is acidic and the pH is less than 7 |
| OH- (hydroxide ions) in pH | when the concentration of OH- ions is high, the solution is basic and the pH is high |
| neutral pH solution | when concentrations of H+ and OH- are equal |
| what are buffers | buffers help maintain a stable pH in a solution , even when acids or bases are added |
| carboxyl group | cooh |
| what are the properties of water | -cohesion -adhesion -universal solvent -density of ice -specific heat -polarity -hydrogen bonding |
| what is cohesion | refers to the state of cohering or sticking together of alike entities |
| what is adhesion | refers to the state of cohering or sticking together of different entities |
| why is water the universal solvent | Water is called the "universal solvent" because it is capable of dissolving more substances than any other liquid. This is important to every living thing on earth. It means that wherever water goes, either through the air, the ground, or through our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients. |
| why is the density of ice special? | Ice always floats because it is less dense than regular water. Because frozen water molecules form a crystal, they take up more space and have a lower density than regular liquid water. |
| polarity of water + | Although the net charge of a water molecule is zero, water is polar because of its shape. The hydrogen ends of the molecule are positive and the oxygen end is negative. This causes water molecules to attract each other and other polar molecules. |
| electronegativity | a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons toward itself. |
| carbonyl group | C=O |
| dehydration synthesis | he process of combination of two molecules with the elimination of water molecules is called dehydration synthesis |
| hydrolysis | any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds |
| what are the two types of active transport | exocytosis and endocytosis |
| exocytosis | Exocytosis is a form of bulk transport during which large numbers of molecules are transported out of the cell |
| endocytosis | the process by which cells take in substances from outside of the cell by engulfing them in a vesicle |
| what are the two types of endocytosis | pinocytosis and phagocytosis |
| pinocytosis | a process by which the cell takes in the fluids along with dissolved small molecules. |
| phagocytosis | Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell engulfs and internalizes a large particle, such as a bacterium, by extending its membrane around it (solid) |
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