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mcat psych/sosc
psych/sosc
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| elaboration theory model | using superficial factors (peripheral route) or having someone think deeply about the message (central route) are ways to persuade ppl |
| life course approach | aging ppl influence/are influenced by variety of factors in society/history; earlier life events can impact later life outcomes |
| flashbulb memory | memory for significant event is not as accurate as the person may believe |
| central executive | working memory that regulates attention and task switching |
| motion parallax | monocular cue that makes closer objects appear to be moving faster than farther objects; (road moves faster than clouds when in car) |
| retinal disparity | binocular cue; both eyes produce slightly diff image, allows for depth perception; associated w/ distance of object from point of focus |
| convergence | binocular cue; eyes turn closer together when focusing on a close up object |
| source monitoring error | memory attributed to wrong source (think aunt told story when it was cousin who did) |
| fundamental attribution error | blame others' behavior on their internal factors rather than situations |
| hindsight bias | "knew it all along"; perceiving past events to be more predictable than they actually were |
| James-Lange | physiological actions lead to emotions |
| Cannon-Bard | emotional and physiological actions happen at same time |
| Schachter-Singer | physiological action -> cognitive interpretation -> emotion |
| cognitive appraisal (lazarus theory) | evaluation of situation precedes physiological/emotional actions |
| hypothalamus | regulates pituitary gland's release of hormones + autonomic nervous system; physiological component of emotion in brain |
| limbic system | emotion (amygdala) , learning, memory (hippocampus), hypothalamus |
| cerebellum | coordinating movement/balance; smooths out movement plan from cerebrum; controls mouth muscles for speech |
| cerebrum | cortexes and lobes; higher brain function (arousal, stress response, + attention) |
| prefrontal cortex | small part of frontal lobe; decision making, impulse control, attention |
| frontal lobe | broca's area (speech), planning, reasoning |
| parietal lobe | touch, spatial orientation |
| occipital lobe | visual processing |
| temporal lobe | perception of auditory stimulus, comprehension of spoken language (wernicke's area) |
| bandura's social cognitive theory | ppl learn by observing others; individuals who believe in their ability to do a behavior are more likely to engage with that behavior |
| cognitive dissonance | state of discomfort from conflicting ideals |
| feature detection | perceptual discrimination of a stimulus (neurons fire for specific stimulus); detecting multiple sensory cues at once |
| parallel processing | simultaneously process multiple components of stimulus (color, motion) |
| spreading activation | concept within semantic network triggers activation of related things |
| sensory adaptation | diminished nervous system response (at the receptor level) to constant stimuli (vision, taste, smell) |
| sensory memory | lasts a few seconds |
| episodic memory | events, experiences |
| semantic memory | facts, concepts, general knowledge of the world |
| morphine | pain relief; binds to endorphin receptors |
| gender schema | norms set by society ( aka gender roles) |
| prejudice | inclination towards/against a group based only on their membership in a group (emotional) |
| stereotyping | believes certain traits are associated with people in a specific group (cognitive) |
| discrimination | behavioral/action |
| autonomic nervous system | controls involuntary processes (heart rate, breathing) |
| somatic nervous system | controls voluntary movements |
| reticular activating system | neurons in brainstem that regulate sleep cycles, consciousness |
| somatosensory cortex | processes sensory info from skin, muscles, organs, organizes sensory input intensity |
| symbolic interactionism | interpretations/meanings of actions between individuals (micro level) |
| primacy effect | better remember things seen first |
| recency effect | better remember things seen last |
| proactive interference | old info decreases ability to recall new memories |
| retroactive interference | new info decreases ability to recall older memories |
| anterograde | ability to form new memories |
| social loafing | individual puts less effort when working in groups if individual contributions not evaluated |
| escape learning | individual performs behavior to stop current adverse stimuli from happening to them |
| functionalism | society = complex system; various parts of society work together to maintain equilibrium (macro level); looks at intended (manifest) and unintended (latent) functions of social practices; says social stratification is necessary |
| false consciousness | ppl from lower class fail to realize the reality of them being exploited/experience injustice; blame themselves instead of systemic inequality |
| mead theory of identity development | the "I" = individual response that reacts to the "me", and doesn't care how ppl see them (more wild); "me" = act according to societal norms (more tame) |
| right brain hemisphere | emotion, visual processing center, music, creativity |
| left brain hemisphere | analytical, logic, language processing center, reasoning, math/science |
| extinction | conditioned response gradually stops when no longer paired with unconditioned stimuli (classical conditioning) OR gradual elimination of behavior when reward/punishment taken away (operant conditioning) |
| implicit memory | long term memory that is acquired/used w/o conscious awareness (emotion, reflexes, procedures, conditioned responses) |
| explicit memory | memory for facts/events used with conscious awareness (episodic, semantic) |
| looking-glass self concept | ppl base their sense of self based on how they THINK others perceive them |
| core nations | U.S., Europe etc. (exports manufactured goods) |
| periphery nations | africa, latin america (export resources like cheap labor/material) |
| erikson's- > infancy (0-1) | trust v. mistrust |
| erikson's -> early childhood (1-3) | autonomy v. shame |
| erikson's -> play age (3-6) | initiative v. guilt |
| erikson's -> school age (6-12) | industry v. inferiority |
| erikson's -> adolescence (12-20 | identity v. confusion |
| erikson's -> early adulthood (20-40) | intimacy v. isolation |
| erikson's -> middle age (40-65) | generativity v. stagnation |
| erikson's -> old age (65-death) | integrity v. despair |
| context dependent memory | ppl can better recall info when they are in the same environment they learned the info (encoding specificity effect) |
| obedience | conforming to commands from authority figure, even if commands are unethical |
| generalized anxiety disorder | encompasses panic disorder, PTSD, + OCD; symptoms are uncontrollable worry, muscle tension, fatigue, irritable |
| organ of corti | inside of cochlea; sound processing + auditory info |
| vestibular organ | inner ear structure that gives info abt spatial orientation + movement |
| dissociative disorders | multiple distinct personalities; can't recall autobiographical details; assuming new identity |
| racialization | creates the idea of race based on physical attributes or behaviors |
| dependency ratio | unproductive/productive |
| social constructionism | ideas (like knowledge about health and disease) are assigned meaning thru social interactions |
| dopamine | maintains smooth movements + posture |
| serotonin | modulates mood, sleep, appetite, and dreaming |
| basal ganglia | nuclei responsible for motor control, cognitive, and emotional regulation; requires dopamine to be released at input nuclei |
| social exclusion | marginalized ppl (poor, mentally ill) cannot participate in society economically or socially |
| cultural capital | what you know; a person's social assets (network, skills, education) helps them achieve social mobility |
| social stratification | = social class, social status, and power |
| absolute poverty | ppl can't buy basic necessities |
| desensitization | a stimulus creates sensitized response, then later the response decreases (reaction to scary spiders gets less and less over time) |
| habituation | repeated stimulus over time= decreased behavioral response (itchy sweater feels regular after a few minutes) |
| sick role theory | ill ppl have right to be exempt from responsibilities; but they must make effort to get better ASAP |
| bipolar disorders | mania, depression, impulsive reckless behavior, suicidal ideation, unstable relationships |
| borderline personality disorders | unstable mood, sense of self, and relationships; fear of abandonment, impulsive reckless behavior, suicidal ideation |
| biomedical approach to mental illness | physiological problems cause mental illness + medical treatment required to fix it |
| availability heuristic | tendency to make decisions based on how easily something comes to memory |
| representative heuristic | tendency to compare things to mental prototypes (assuming nurses are usually women) |
| functional fixedness | the tendency to only think of an object's traditional use when solving a problem |
| illness experience | how ppl cope/adjust with their disease |
| social capital | who you know; a person's networks can equal economic gain; more economic gain = upwards social mobility |
| memory consolidation | stabilizing short term memory into long term by strengthening relevant synapses |
| memory encoding | initial process of learning/perceiving and inputting into memory |
| counterculture | opposes + rejects norms or mainstream society |
| subculture | distinct from mainstream society, but doesn't oppose it |
| kohlberg stages of moral development | preconventional (0-9) = avoiding punishment/seek reward conventional (9-18) = obeying laws + wanting other's approval post-conventional (18+) = following own ethics above all else |
| identity achievement status | person has explored options and commits to who they wanna be |
| impression management | trying to influence how others perceive u (covering tattoos to seem professional in interview) |
| hawthorne effect | ppl change their behavior when they know they're being observed/studied |
| demographic transition model | transition from high birth/death rates -> low birth/death rates; population steadily increases |
| groupthink | ppl in group prioritize harmony/conformity over critical thinking; stifles creativity; don't consider outside ideas |
| group polarization | likeminded ppl reinforce their opinions = group ends up with a more extreme viewpoint |
| expectancy theory of motivation | amount of motivation for a task is based on one's expectation for success on the task |
| incentive theory of motivation | amount of motivation for a task is based on desire to pursue reward/avoid punishment |
| maslow's hierarchy of needs | physiological -> safety -> love/belonging -> esteem -> self actualization (fulfillment) |
| drive reduction theory | motivation comes from biological need; biological need generates "drive" which fulfills the need |
| labeling theory | societal labels (deviant or troublemaker) influence perceptions and behaviors, often leading to stigmatization; labeled individual may internalize this and keep acting bad |
| inductive reasoning | specific observations/conclusions lead to generalizations |
| deductive reasoning | general principle is applied to a specific case to test its validity |
| hair cells | mechanoreceptors in Organ of corti; convert mechanical vibrations to electrical signals to perceive audio |
| malthusian theory | populations grow exponentially (geometrically), and resources grow linearly (arithmetically); pos. checks increase mortality; preventative checks limit fertility |
| primary appraisal | "is this situation threatening?"; initial evaluation |
| secondary appraisal | "can i effectively cope with this threat?" |
| parkinson's disease | decrease in dopamine levels due to death of dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia; symptoms = fine motor issues |
| arousal | state of being alert; increased by stress |
| activity theory | ppl feel more satisfied when engaging in purposeful activities |
| disengagement theory | old ppl should gradually withdraw from society |
| histamine | neurotransmitter for alertness/wakefullness |
| merkel cells | detect sustained pressure + texture |
| interactionist theory of language development (vygotsky) | language develops from motivation to communicate/interact w/ others |
| signal detection theory | detection is based on the intensity of the signal + the state of the individual; with practice/experience, identifying true positives will increase |
| semicircular canal | maintain balance |
| mores | norms that are strictly enforced b/c they are essential to group's well being (right v. wrong) |
| folkways | norms that aren't strictly enforced (walking on wrong side of sidewalk) right v. rude |
| piaget's stages | sensorimotor: 0-2yrs gain knowledge thru their senses preoperational: 2-7yrs represent the world symbolically + imagination; egocentric concrete operational: 7-11yrs learns rules (conservation of water) formal operational: 11+ abstract thinking + logic |
| gestalt principles: | closure: we see complete figure even if part is missing continuity: S shaped proximity: physically close objects perceived as a group common fate: objects moving together perceived as a group similarity: similar objects perceived as a group |
| freud's pscychosexual stages | 0-1: oral 1-3: anal 3-6: phallic 6-puberty: latent puberty-adult: genital |
| social reproduction | perpetuation of inequalities passed down generations b/c of social institutions (education, economy) that reinforce inequality |
| avoidant attachment | avoid contact w/ caregiver; no distress when caregiver leaves |
| disorganized attachment | feels confused/disordered towards caregiver |
| id | instinctual part of mind that desires immediate gratification/survival instincts; functions in the unconscious |
| superego | values morals and altruism; functions in the subconscious, conscious, and preconscious |
| ego | balancing conflict between id and superego via rationale; makes decisions based on reality; functions in the unconscious, conscious, and subconscious |
| reaction formation | acting in a way opposite to how you feel (bullying a crush) |
| social facilitation | people perform better on easy task when others are present |
| absolute threshold | smallest amount of stimulus needed to detect sensory input half of the time |
| weber's law | the noticeable difference is proportional to original stimulus intensity |
| role strain | difficult managing one role |
| role conflict | difficulty managing multiple roles |
| differential association theory | people learn criminalized behavior thru interactions w/ others |
| partial reinforcement schedule | behavior learned more slowly w/ slower extinction |
| continuous reinforcement schedule | reward given after every task; behavior learned more quickly w/ faster extinction |
| fixed interval | behavior rewarded after a specific amnt of time, regardless of how many behaviors occurred (weekly salary no matter how many shifts you worked that week); produces slow response rates |
| fixed ratio | behavior rewarded after specific amnt of responses (free coffee after 10 purchases); produces fast response rates |
| variable ratio | behavior rewarded after inconsistent amnt of responses; produces fast response rates (most effective) |
| variable interval | behavior rewarded after inconsistent amnt of time, regardless of how many behaviors occurred; produces slow response rates |
| primary reinforcer | fulfill biological urge (food, praise) |
| secondary reinforcer | conditioned to be desirable (money, good grades) |
| primary punisher | biologically undesirable; cause pain/fear (electric shock) |
| secondary punisher | conditioned to be undesirable (bad grades) |
| behaviorist approach to language(B.F. Skinner) | reinforcement and punishment shape behaviors (classical + operant conditioning, and observational learning) |
| primary motor cortex | in frontal lobe; controls voluntary movement by sending signals to muscles |
| broca's area damage | = non-fluent speech |
| wernicke's area damage | fluent but nonsensical speech |
| inhibitory neurotransmitters | GABA + glycine |
| excitatory neurotransmitters | glutamate |
| synaptic plasticity of babies | increased b/c their brains are developing; they can recover and learn faster than adults |
| histamine | neurotransmitter for wakefulness/alertness |
| substance P | neuropeptide that regulates mood, vomiting, + transmitting pain signals |
| schizophrenia | pos. symptoms = hallucinations, disordered speech, delusions neg. symptoms = no motivation, emotional flattening, withdraws excessive activity of dopamine receptors |
| null hypothesis | predicts no significant difference between measured variables |
| alternative hypothesis | predicts significant difference between measured variables |
| serial position effect | items in beginning + end remembered better; middle items forgotten; occurs when items presented 1 by 1 |
| declarative memory | ability to recall facts/events |
| working memory (short-term) | less than 1 minute |
| cultural transmission | transferring culture down generations |
| cultural diffusion | passing culture to another culture (americans eating sushi) |
| primary group | family/close friends |
| secondary group | coworkers/classmates |
| reception learning | when info is presented to the learner in structured way (textbooks/lectures) |
| general adaptive syndrome of stress | alarm (initial stress response) -> resistance to stress -> exhaustion |
| humanistic therapy | attempts to empower person + realize their growth potential |
| precision | how close together each test results are (consistency) |
| accuracy | how correct the test results are |
| striatum | deep inside forebrain; controls reward pathways + motor control |
| optimal arousal | hard tasks = low arousal to alleviate anxiety easy tasks = high arousal to maintain engagement |
| cluster A | paranoid + schizoid (detached) |
| cluster B | antisocial, borderline (unstable), narcissistic, histrionic (attention seeking) |
| cluster C | worried, avoidant, dependent, obssesive-compulsive |
| activation synthesis theory | pons creates signals -> cerebral cortex synthesizes dream narrative |
| demand characteristics | cues/info in a study that might indicate research's objective; can shape participants behavior |
| universal emotions | expressions that can be recognized across all cultures (happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise + fear) |
| diathesis stress model | influence of biological predispositions and the environment stressors cause mental illness |
| learned helplessness | feeling of hopelessness after exposure to an uncontrollable aversive stimulus results |
| phobic responses | acquired thru classical conditioning |
| electroencephalogram (EEG) | measures patterns of electrical impulses in brain + shows waves; diagnoses sleep disorders + epilepsy |
| fMRI | sees neuron activity of specific brain regions by measuring blood oxygen/flow to brain |
| PET scan | measures general brain metabolic activity + glucose uptake in specific regions; identifies tumors/cancers |
| cultural relativism | cultures have diff. values/ethics + they should be tolerated/accepted |
| shadow (cognitive testing) | subject is played a different message into each ear, and is asked to repeat aloud just one of those messages (selective attention) |
| reconstructive memory | the act of remembering is subject to distortion, despite ppl thinking their memory is free of error |
| panic disorder | sweating, chest pain, pounding heart, panic attacks that mimic heart attacks |
| dichotic listening task | a diff. auditory stimulus in each ear, participant must only pay attention to one ear |
| negative reinforcement | removing/avoiding uncomfortable stimuli to increase behavior |
| positive reinforcement | adding pleasant stimuli to increase behavior |
| negative punishment | removing/avoiding pleasant stimuli to decrease behavior |
| positive punishment | adding uncomfortable stimuli to decrease behavior |
| self serving bias | ppl base their success on internal factors + base their failures on external factors |
| self-determination theory | basic psychological needs (autonomy/self initiating, competence, relatedness) are reasons for motivation |
| instintual drift | animals revert to innate behaviors instead of their learned behaviors from operant conditioning |
| proximal stimulus | registered by sensory receptors; light, sound, temp, taste, smell and pressure |
| distal stimulus | the external source of stimulus (the actual object) |
| interposition | monococular cue to perceive depth + distance; occluded objects are further away than the objects that occlude them |
| place theory | our perception of sound is based on where in the cochlea the vibrations are (perceiving pitch) |
| fovea | in center of macula, responsible for vision; has high density of cones |
| corpus callosum | connects left + right hemispheres |
| social exchange theory | people try to maximize benefits + minimize costs in a social relationship |
| thomas theorem | behavior is cause by your belief in something that is NOT reality (boy can't sleep b/c he thinks ghosts are real) |
| type 1 error | false positive; wrongly rejecting the null hypothesis (claiming their is a significant effect when there isn't) |
| type 2 error | false negative; fail to accept the null hypothesis (missing that there IS a significant effect) |
| discriminating stimuli | cue that helps participants distinguish which stimulus gives reward and which stimulus gives punishment/nothing |
| Carl Rogers’s concept of incongruence | when our ideal selves and actual self do not align |
| observer/researcher bias | the researcher's expectations or opinions influence the data collected |
| retina | contains photoreceptors (rod/cones) that detect light + converts it to neural signals sent the brain |
| glass escalator concept | men have hidden advantages in female dominated workplaces |
| abnormal behavior classification | statistical rarity, maladaptiveness (interfering w/ personal life) , personal distress, and violation of social norms |
| overextension | children (1-2yrs) apply a term for one class of objects to another class of objects that only resemble superficially (using "dog" to describe all 4-legged animals) |
| bootstrapping | innate process where kids learn syntax/grammar by building upon knowledge they've already acquired (nativist theory) |
| categorical perception | tendency to perceive stimuli as distinct categories (colors are distinct, not continuous) |
| retinal height | monocular cue; objects higher in visual field = farther away; objects lower in visual field = closer |
| disinhibition | inability to suppress inappropriate/unwanted behavior |
| gustatory cells | taste receptor cells in tastebuds |
| moderator variable | affects strength of observed relationship between independent + dependent variable |
| mediating variable | mechanism to explain observed relationship (you see A->B, but it's actually A->C->B) |
| metacognition | the ability to reflect on and understand your own and others' (theory of mind) mental/emotional processes |
| vygotsky's theory of cognitive development | interacting with smarter person helps someone learn new skill (teacher scaffolding) |
| strain theory | social pressures can lead to crime (stealing to flex that ur rich) |
| cultural lag | some aspects of a culture change slower than other aspects (old ppl not valuing technology becoming part of everyday life) |
| top-down processing | using prior knowledge to interpret new info |
| bottom-up processing | building perception directly from stimuli without relying on previous knowledge |
| ruffini endings | in dermis; responsible for feeling stretching of skin |
| construct validity | accuracy; the extent to which the study measures what it is intended to measure |
| reliability | refers to the measuring PROCEDURE; will they get the same values if the measurements are repeated? |
| monoamine hypothesis of depression | depression is caused by a deficiency or imbalance in monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) |
| nucleus accumbens | brain structure that significant role in the processing of pleasure, reward, and addiction |
| anhedonia | inability to experience pleasure from activities that are typically enjoyable |
| token economy | certain behaviors are positively reinforced w/ tokens (sticker, gold star); the tokens can be exchanged for desirable reward |
| parallel play | preschool children play by themselves but observe another child playing and adjust their behavior in response |
| socialization | internalizing social norms/values |
| quasi experimental design | 2 or more groups assigned to either intervention or control condition |
| test-retest bias | ppl complete the same assessment more than once, which affects their responses on the subsequent tests |
| attrition bias | participants drop out of study (usually longitudinal) + affects study results |
| kinship of affinity | ppl become related thru marriage (no blood ties) |
| anomie | individuals feel disconnected in society; due to lack of social ethics, rapid change, low income, |
| internal validity | the degree to which causal conclusions can be made from a study; includes accounting for possible confounding variables |
| thinning | reducing frequency of rewards in operant conditioning |
| inclusive fitness | animal ensuring its genes survive (bird chirping to warn others of predator) |
| house money effect | after prior gain, ppl more likely to take risks with the money, since the new money is not treated as their own |
| gambler's fallacy | if an event occurs more right now, then it will happen less in the future |
| separation | opposite of assimilation; rejecting new culture and maintaining native culture |
| assimilation | accepting new culture + reject native culture |
| reciprocal determinism | one's behavior is influenced by the environment + personal factors |
| deindividuation | psychological state where someone loses their personal identity, and doesn't feel accountable for their actions |
| sampling bias | when a nonrandom subject selection doesn't use a representative sample of the target population |
| normative organization | ppl voluntarily join based on shared interests |
| utilitarian organization | members tangibly compensated for their involvement (paycheck, diploma) |
| frustration-aggresion theory | ppl exhibit violence when they experience defeat (frustration) |
| halo effect | individual w positive qualities (attractiveness) is presumed to have other positive qualities (kindness) |
| racial centrality | the extent to which one’s race is an important part of the person’s overall self-concept |
| regression analysis | examines the relationship between a dependent variable and various independent variables |
| independent sample t-test | used to compare the means of 2 separate groups (comparing SATs of 2 diff. schools) |
| paired sample t-test | used to compare the means of 2 related groups (comparing blood pressure before and after exercise) |
| theory of mind | being able to take another person’s perspective |
| affect heuristic | emotions guide decisions/judgements, often leading to quick + biased choices |
| stimulus motive | an innate drive to explore, learn, and seek stimulation; not necessary for survival (curiosity) |
| stanley milgram | obedience experiment; ppl do morally wrong actions if authority figure tells them to |
| informative pressure | person conforms their behavior to match that of the rest of a group out of the belief that the group is better informed |
| normative pressure | person knows that the others are incorrect, but still feels pressure to not dissent from the rest of the group |
| triune brain concept | theory that brain evolved in 3 layers: basal ganglia (instincts); limbic system (emotions); neocortex (higher thinking skills) |
| self monitoring | strategy that involves self-reflection and adjusting your behavior, thoughts, and attitudes in social situations or over time |
| Weberian stratification | class, status, and power causes stratification + hierarchies |
| dichotomous variable | only has 2 categories (yes/no) on survey |
| ordinal variable | rankings to allow for comparisons (level of education, pain level) |
| anhedonia | depression symptom; inability to feel pleasure |
| sequential attention | multitasking (changing radio station while driving) |
| instinctive motive of behavior | innate actions relating to survival and reproduction (seeking food + nesting behavior) |
| whorfian hypothesis (linguistic relativity) | human cognition is affected by language |
| triadic vs dyadic groups | triadic (larger group) is more stable but less intimate than dyadic (smaller group) |
| positivism | quantitive experiments and objectivity is used to find generalizable truths |
| long term potentiation | strengthening of synapses by increasing signal transmission between neurons |
| secure attachement | consistent caregiving results in trust + intimacy; child has confidence to explore their surroundings |
| mirror neurons | neurons that are active when doing an action, and watching that same action being done |
Created by:
reynangu