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Evol Animal Final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Movement | extremely important and a type of life-sustaining behavior. Animals are motivated to move by three things: foraging (food), mating (sex), and avoiding predators. |
| The sensory portion of movement | The sensory portion of movement means the animal has to detect some kind of external stimulus (like a female, temperature, or a smell). |
| The integrate portion of movement | The integrate portion means making a decision based on that sensory stimulus — essentially making a decision. |
| The output portion of movement | The output portion is the actual movement that occurs after the sensory and integrate portions. |
| triangulation | In a dark room, you can navigate with → triangulation (measuring the intensity of stimulus from two different locations in combination of time and space. This happens with the work of receptors. |
| Orientation | coordinated movement (walking, swimming, flying, etc). It’s a response to external stimuli and an adaptive value for survival. It’s also a more specific way of saying movement. |
| Three Categories of Movement | short (ish) distances, long distances (migration), and dispersal. |
| Short(ish) distances have two types... | These two types are kinesis and taxis. These are both innate behaviors. These are not learned and the type of stimulus is not important, but the type of behavior it elicits is important. |
| Long Distance | migration (you come back) |
| Dispersal | you don’t come back |
| Kinesis | The term "kinesis" comes from the Greek word for "motion" and describes non-directional increase in movement that lasts until a favorable environment is reached. Kinesis is divided into orthokinesis and klinokinesis, proportional to stimulus intensity. |
| Orthokinesis | change in the speed of movement. Orthokinesis is non-directional, so that the organism doesn’t actively orient itself toward or away from the stimulus source. Random changes in speed happening due to the stimulus's strength rather than location. |
| Klinokinesis | change in rate of turning, rather than speed. When the stimulus is intense, an organism turns more frequently = "random walk." Organism increases its likelihood of finding a favorable environment, like with suitable moisture/light levels. |
| For Orthokinesis and Klinokinesis… | type of stimulus doesn’t matter. It could be food, water, temperature, humidity, light, or darkness. It could be positive, towards the stimulus and away from the stimulus. |
| Planaria Example | prefer low-light environments. In bright conditions, their movement patterns become more active and random as they try to find a darker environment, likely through increased klinokinesis (turning more frequently) to escape the light. |
| Pillbug (Woodlouse) Example | example of orthokinesis. In moist environments, they move slowly and steadily. However, in dry conditions, their movement speed increases significantly, causing them to leave the unfavorable area more quickly in search of moisture. |
| Taxis | directional movement response in which an organism moves toward/away from a specific stimulus. Unlike kinesis, taxis is oriented with respect to the direction of the stimulus, meaning the organism has a more deliberate movement. |
| Positive Taxis Response | Movement toward the stimulus. For example, an organism may move toward a source of light, heat, or food. |
| Negative Taxis Response | Movement away from the stimulus, as in escaping a harmful condition like extreme heat or dryness. |
| Phototaxis | movement in response to light, either toward the source of light (positive phototaxis) or away (negative phototaxis). Positive phototaxis involves nocturnal insects (like moths), negative involves cockroaches (with light, they run to the dark). |
| Chemotaxis | movement in response to a chemical stimulus. Toward a higher concentration of the chemical (positive chemotaxis) or away from it (negative chemotaxis). Positive = c.elegan goes towards food, negative = mosquito avoiding all kinds of toxins. |
| Tropotaxis | straight movement by an organism toward/away from a source of stimulation as a result of information received by paired sensory receptors. Ex: you can triangulate and don’t have to turn your head. Humans have two ears (paired sensory receptors). |
| Klinotaxis | directional response to stimuli. klinotaxis, the organism orients itself by making successive comparisons of the stimulus at different points in space. 1 sensory receptor or receptors very close to each other. More curvy cause multiple takes. |
| Animal Examples of Tropotaxis | Green chitin goes towards darkness since it’s guided by sensory receptors. Also, when planaria is placed in the vicinity of shrimp, the planaria goes straight towards shrimp (this is not random). |
| Klinotaxis & Tropotaxis Comparison | klinotaxis is directed movement but these animals have either one sensory receptor or their two sensory receptors are very close to each other. In a diagram, klinotaxis will be curvy and tropotaxis straight! |
| Euglena Taxis Example | have tiny receptors, if you place Euglena with a food source, you see: initial random swimming, gradual orientation higher food concentration, a decrease in random turns as it approaches the food source. Less zigzag, the closer it gets. |
| Menotaxis | movement at a constant angle to the light source. Organism reorients itself towards light source instead of moving directly towards it. Ex: moth to moon vs. artificial street light. In the presence of street light, they have a death spiral. |
| Migration | now we’re talking about a LONG distance. This is a two way trip where many animals rely upon the moon, stars, and the sun for navigation. They cannot rely on smell, sounds, or sight to find their home, because it’s so far away. |
| Some Questions To Ask Regarding Migration | how do animals migrate? Is there prep time? When do they know to go? |
| Navigation | animals can go from anywhere and end up home. |
| Orientation | they go from a certain direction |
| Before Migration Preparations | 1. Photoperiod (how much light there is) → cue 2. Temperature → less of a cue 3. Start eating → “cued” → birds molt (get rid of old feathers) → hyperplagia (excessive eating because they have to increase their body weight). |
| Why Migrate? | There is a shortage of food resources in the area they’re currently living in, potentially due to season changes. They might also migrate in order to mate or to escape predation. |
| How Does An Animal Know It's Time To Migrate? | Serengeti herbivores → when the grass biomass changes (such as the grass growth slows or dries out), that means it’s the animals’ cue to migrate. |
| Research of Birds | Birds possess a circannual clock, an internal timekeeping mechanism that regulates their yearly migration cycle, typically causing them to migrate twice a year. Also helps with nocturnal migration. |
| Stephen and John Emlen + Zygunrune: | German word for migratory restlessness (happens for all birds, even ones in a cage). |
| Cage + Low Light + Actogram Experiment: | when LDL, active during daytime, but sometimes activity in dark regions close to migration time. Night: restless to migrate, flying around. Normal, non-migrating: daylight activity. Pre Migration/migratory period: daytime + nighttime activity bouts. |
| Emlen Funnel | funnel with ink pad at bottom, birds stand on ink pad, birds know directions of north, south, and east west. They end up flying to SW in the fall and reverse to NE in spring. The ink marks show they have a specific sense of direction. |
| Zugrune Times | night time restlessness that starts at about 7 pm. Every day, it gets more delayed until it’s at 4am (takes half a year) and then restlessness stops. Clock turns on twice a year, September and March. |
| Planetarium Experiment | put all emlen funnels in planetarium, made planetarium into natural sky. Based on the north star, they go to SW. Betlegues (a star in the West) and switched it with the north star. Birds didn’t notice change and kept SW, proving innate orientation. |
| European Starling Question | are they orienting or are they using true navigation? |
| European Starling Experiment | Perdeck captured 1,800 hatchlings (new) and adults (have migrated before). They usually fly to Spain, but he displaced them to Switzerland. Some went to Italy (usually adults and hatchlings), some went to France, some followed adults to the right place. |
| European Starling Results | the hatchlings performed orientation whereas some of the adults performed navigation. |
| Arctic Tern | uses circumpolar migration |
| Dispersal Behavior | relatively short distance compared to migration. This is a one way trip away from the natal site (where birth occurs). |
| Migration Vs. Dispersal | while dispersal is a one way trip, migration is a two way trip and periodical. |
| Ecologist | analyzes the number of animals that disperse, the movement of individuals (gene flow). |
| Behaviorist | what causes an animal to disperse? Its dispersal behavior is linked to age, sex, and behavioral history. |
| behavioral syndrome | Within a species, you’re going to have some kind of behavioral syndrome, meaning some animals will disperse and others will not. |
| Who Disperses? | The juveniles generally disperse due experience and lack of strength → these two factors usually mean that they are driven out of the parental territory and need to relocate. You cannot wrestle a favored location from parents. |
| Sex in Dispersal (Males): | depends on species. In most mammals, it’s the males that disperse. These males usually display polygyny, in which there’s an alpha male and a harem → the alpha male does not share with his son, so the young male has to leave. |
| Wild Horses | young males (aged 1-5 years) remain in a group together. This is called a “bachelor herd” → young and losers, they don’t have a territory. Eventually, one of the losers finds a territory or beats an alpha male for it. They also disperse. |
| Sex in Dispersal (Females): | they tend not to disperse. Once the females have a suitable habitat, they usually have no reason to leave. They’re okay with being in a harem. |
| Sex Dispersal Among Birds and Amphibians (An Exception to the Usual Sex): | females tend to disperse instead of males. This is because, on average, many birds are monogamous and the males have territory around their nests. |
| General Dispersal Rule: | Much of dispersal is related to mating systems! |
| Costs of Dispersal | finding an unoccupied habitat (this can be very difficult and is a tense time!), the new site could be worse than the natal site, there could be predators. |
| Benefits of Dispersal | reduces resource competition, reduces mate competition, and increases reproductive success. |
| Four Reasons Why Certain Animals Disperse and Others Don’t | competition dispersal, inbreeding avoidance, dispersal for colonization, and breeding dispersal |
| Competition Dispersal (Dispersal 1): | increases the population density and avoids kin competition (competition with your siblings), reduces resource competition. |
| Competition Dispersal Experiment | this experiment involved two manipulations to see which members of the group would leave: increasing the population density to high and changing the amount of food. |
| Springtails (Competition Dispersal) | For the density part of the dispersal experiment, an insect called a sprintail (small, wingless, hexapoda with six legs) likes to live in a moist environment. They also have a furcula, a fork-like appendage that they use to jump and flip with. |
| In the lab experiment, springtails… | placed in five moist chambers. In each chamber, the scientists created a suitable habitat of high (90,000 individuals) or low density (30,000 individuals). At high density, more individuals tended to disperse while in low, they could bunch up. |
| Northern Goshawk (Competition Dispersal Example) | they are large, predatory birds. The juvenile hawks have to decide whether there is abundant food in the area (if there is, they do not disperse) and if there is scarce food (if there is, they do disperse). |
| Northern Goshawk Experiment in Mexico | The researchers had a 10 meter platform and every other day, placed 2 dead birds on the top of it. In the other 14 nests, there was nothing on the platform! The control juveniles dispersed while the food-supplemented ones stayed in the area. |
| Inbreeding Avoidance (Dispersal 2): | individuals disperse to not mate with a close relative. This is because the offsprings of inbreeding have lower reproductive success and survival, because of an increase in homozygous recessive genes and a decrease in genetic diversity. |
| Meadow Voles (Inbreeding Avoidance Example) | small herbivore rodents that live in tall grass. They feed on the grass and use it to hide from predators. They have male-based dispersal where juvenile males are 2x more likely to leave than females. |
| Meadow Voles Experiment | patch of tall grass and they have mowed (short) grass. Then, they had another area that was barren ground with traps. They used four related juveniles as an experiment and four unrelated as a control, setting them loose. |
| Result of Meadow Voles Experiment | found that more males were trapped than females (females are fine with living amongst sisters, etc.). Means → animals have a special sense that lets them know which organisms are their siblings. |
| Dispersal for Colonization (Dispersal 3): | the main cost is when you disperse you have to eat more → your energy budget adds up to 100%, so to increase calories and muscle density for wings and dispersal, you’d take away energy for reproduction. |
| Gryllus Firmus (Cricket/Dispersal for Colonization) | two phenotypes (one can fly and have large wings + musculature + delayed egg reproduction since energy budget for wings and the other does not fly and has small wings + low musculature + low lipid reserves). Consequence of dispersing = less eggs. |
| Proof of Egg Dispersal Idea | The researchers collected juvenile hormones (which suppresses conversion to adulthood) and gave it to the potentially long-winged juveniles. They became no wing adults and did not make more muscle while their ovarian development became faster. |
| Breeding Dispersal + Public Information (Dispersal 4): | breeding dispersal and public information leads to success in breeding (an increase in RS). If you win, you stay and if you lose, you shift (dispersal strategy). In the win-stay, you have high RS, in lose-shift, you have low and better shift. |
| Kittiwakes (Ex of Breeding Dispersal + Public Information) | birds that live on a sheer cliff. If they get public information that they’re in bad territory and everyone else is doing similarly bad, you’d leave. If you get public information that you’re in bad territory and everyone else is fine, you’d stay. |
| Kittiwakes Experiment | the researchers had a experimental and control group (experimental was a focal bird that had one egg removed — this happened patch-wide — while the control was the only who experienced). Experimental decided to disperse, control decided title stay. |
| Feeding behavior has two sides | prey feeding & predator danger/avoidance |
| Optimality Theory | based on the assumption that the attributes of organisms are optimal. |
| Fitness | benefits (calories) - cost (risk of predators and food handling) |
| Gape Size | if you can decide how large a predator can open their mouth, you’ll know what they can and cannot prey upon. This leads to optimal decisions in foraging. |
| Crows | prey includes whelks. They have trouble getting the animal out of the shell because they have no hands, so they pick up the whelk, fly, and then drop it. The cost is energy, how high you have to fly, how many attempts until crack. |
| Dr. Zuch’s Crow Observations | observed crows picking up and dropping whelks, crows tend to pick up large whelks (3.5-4.5 cm), fly up to 5 meters high (16 ft), and drop it multiple times. They’re using the optimality theory = maximizing whelk flesh / unit time spent breaking it. |
| Dr. Zuch’s Crow Experiment | 5m, 10m, and 15m height, then collected whelks of varying sizes. Dropped each of these whelks from those heights and found = the largest dropped easily at about 5 meters ¼ times. On average, the bird would have to drop it from a max of 5 m. |
| Whelks Calories Spent | large whelk has 0.5 kcal, medium has 0.3kcal, and small has less and is extremely hard to crack. |
| Crows & Whelks Conclusion | it’s best to spend your energy on the biggest whelks, so you have more calories/energy gained per unit of time. |
| Zebra Finches Experiment | the finches trapped and brought into the lab, placed in two groups, one where the seeds were placed in the cage, and the other where the seeds were hidden in a chaff (chapped straw). |
| Zebra Finches Cost and Benefits | The ones in the cage with seeds had a low foraging cost, higher daily net calorie, and lived longer + produced more offspring. The ones in the chaff had a high foraging cost, lower daily net calories, and lived shorter + took longer to produce eggs. |
| Predator Awareness & Optimality Theory | Based on the optimality theory, if you just look at the calorie expenditure, you’ll miss the fact that there is predator awareness. Sometimes because of predators, the animal will sacrifice short-term calorie gain for long-term survival. |
| Dugongs (Example of Predator Awareness): | live in Shark Bay, Australia. These are slow-moving mammals that are eight feet long and feed seagrass. |
| Dugong Ways of Eating | They have two ways: one is called cropping (stripping seagrass leaves) and the other way is called excavation (stick their snout into the sand and pull up the seagrass by their roots → called rhizomes, very high in calories). |
| Dugong Result | they have to be aware of predators, so if there’s no sharks around, they'll excavate. Otherwise, they’ll crop, which gives them less calories but keeps them safe. |
| Habitat Selection | asks the question of how the organism makes use of their environment? It’s an act of selection by individuals of a species that includes many innate responses and decisions encoded in their genes. |
| Purpose of Habitat Selection | the act of choosing is the combination of available biotic + abiotic elements. The purpose is to fulfill the life history events of the organisms. They want to mate, raise young, and avoid death. |
| Ecologists vs Ethologists | the former wants to know how animals are distributed while the latter wants to know the role of the decision making, where they choose to live, and how this affects distribution in time and space. |
| Burrowing Beach Isopods (Example of Habitat Selection): | depending on a species, they prefer a specific sand grain size and will shift their habitat to reflect that. |
| Chipping Sparrows (Example of Habitat Selection): | they prefer pine needle trees vs. deciduous trees. |
| Moth Mite (Example of Habitat Selection): | mites that live in the ears of moths. Female finds a moth and lays eggs in one ear. The eggs hatch but no offspring ever consider going to other ear, because that would make the moths deaf and vulnerable to bats. If the moths die, they lose their home. |
| How Do Individuals Select a Habitat? | Individuals distribute themselves to optimize their OWN fitness (1), they are FREE to move among habitat patches at NO COST (2), they have an ideal + instantaneous knowledge of the relative quality of habitat patches + local density dependence (3). |
| IFD: | Ideal Free Distribution, includes food quantity, density, competition → conspecific. Eventually, you want every individual to have equal reproductive success. |
| Think of IDF As Three Patches | an individual in A has a max # of 2 offspring, an individual in B has a max # of 2, and C has a max of 8 offspring. (Just understand example) |
| Sticklebacks (Example of IFD): | each fish gets the same amount of food, even if one individual had to move to a different space for the same amount. If there’s 5 fish with a lot of food, fish might go to side with less food but enough to get equal since there aren’t that many fish. |
| Blackcap, Warblers (Example of IFD): | choice of habitats are deciduous forests – preferred – and mixed coniferous wood lots away from the water. There’s 4x in the preferred spot, which shows the warblers are not just looking at vegetation, insect productivity, or competition (conspecific). |
| Species that Violate IFD are… | free to move around and have animal personality (behavioral syndrome of behavior types). |
| Funnel Spiders (Violates IDF): | The aggressive ones do not allow neighbors to build nests near them while the non-aggressive ones allow it. Some exhibit such high levels of aggression that their actions are called “non-adaptive wasteful killing” — kills but doesn’t eat. |
| Sand Fiddler Crab (Violates IDF): | live in large population groups, were taken into the lab and tested for bold vs. shy personalities. They were labeled by paint, then released and exposed to stimulus. |
| Sand Fiddler Crab Results: | The bold ones on average spent 50% more time on the edge of the beach (where it’s dangerous!), but could’ve been first to a new patch of food. The shy ones were found in the middle of the population and less active. |
| Creosote Bush Grasshopper/Desert Chicken (Violates IDF): | they feed and nest in a creosote bush and every spring, the males stake out a bush to attract a female. |
| Creosote Bush Grasshopper Experiment One: | the researchers set two bushes 3.5 meters apart and the focal male went to the first bush. |
| Creosote Bush Grasshopper Experiment Two: | the researchers set two bushes apart with male already on the first bush. Under IDF, the focal male gone to bush two. In reality, the focal male went to bush one. This is because the females have a strong preference for bushes with many calling males. |
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smurtab