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My NSCI Study Set
This is a study set based on neuroscience terms and concepts.
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is neuroscience? | It is a branch of science focused on studying the brain and nervous system. It explores their development, structure, functions, & how they control human & animal thoughts, actions, and interactions with the world. |
| What are some of the disciplines involved in neuroscience? | - Biology - Chemistry - Physics - Psychology - Anatomy - Physiology - Computer Science - Mathematics |
| What is a neuron? | It is a building block of the nervous system and is an information messenger. It uses electrical impulses and chemical signals to transmit information between different areas of the brain & between the brain and the nervous system. |
| What is a cell membrane? | It's the border of a neuron that protects the neuron and controls the movement of the chemicals that enter in and out of the neuron's axon. |
| What are dendrites? | They are the receiving branches of the neuron that are located at the front of the neuron and are responsible for receiving signals from other neurons. |
| What are dendritic spines? | They are small protrusions on dendrites that vary in shape and size. They receive input from synapses, primarily EPSPs (excitatory postsynaptic potentials) and play a key role in synaptic strength and electrical signaling. |
| What is the soma (a.k.a the cell body)? | It is the cell body of a neuron that houses the nucleus and other organelles, responsible for maintaining the cell's functions and integrating incoming signals. |
| What is a nucleus? | It's an oval shaped membrane-bound structure found in the soma of a neuron that controls the entire neuron. It also contains the DNA of the neuron and protects the DNA from molecules that could damage its structure and interfere with its processing. |
| What is the axon hillock? | It is the area where the cell body transitions to the axon and where action potentials are initiated. |
| What is an axon? | It is a long, slender projection of a neuron that that typically conducts electrical impulses known as action potentials away from the nerve cell body. |
| What are axon collaterals? | They are side branches that develop on an axon so that one neuron can send information to several others. |
| What is myelin sheath? | They are a bunch of layers of protein and fat that form around neurons. They act as insulators, allowing electrical impulses to travel quickly and efficiently along neurons. |
| What are the nodes of ranvier? | They are gaps formed between the myelin sheath where the axons are left uncovered. They allow for sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) ions to diffuse in and out of the neuron, propagating the electrical signal down the axon. |
| What are terminal branches? | They are the sending branches that are located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending signals to other neurons or target cells. |
| What are terminals? | They are small swellings that are found at the end of terminal branches that form junctions with other neurons. |
| What are vesicles? | They are presynaptic membranes that are stored in the terminals and contain various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse. The release is regulated by a voltage-dependent calcium channel. |
| What is a synapse? | It is a junction between two neurons where nerve impulses are transferred from axons of a presynaptic (sending) neuron to a dendrite of a postsynaptic (receiving) neuron through a neurotransmitter. It is the entire junction where two neurons communicat |
| What is a synaptic gap/cleft? | It is the small, fluid-filled gap between the presynaptic terminal and the postsynaptic membrane. It is specifically the space where neurotransmitters are released and diffuse to reach receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. |
| What is a presynaptic neuron? | It is the neuron that conducts a chemical impulse towards a synapse (sends information). |
| What is a postsynaptic neuron? | It is the neuron that transmits a chemical impulse away from a synapse (receives information). |
| What is a receptor? | It is a protein located on the neuron's membrane, typically on the postsynaptic membrane. It binds to specific molecules, such as neurotransmitters, and initiates a response in the neuron. |
| What is an action potential? | It is a rapid sequence of actions that occur in a neuron's cell membrane that happen to transmit information from one neuron to another. |
| What are the stages of an action potential in order? | 1. Resting Potential 2. Stimulus Phase 3. Depolarization 4. Peak of Action Potential 5. Repolarization 6. Hyperpolarization (Undershoot) 7. Return to Resting Potential |
| What happens in the "Resting Potential" stage of an action potential? | • The neuron is at -70 mV, maintained by the sodium-potassium pump, which actively pumps 3 Na⁺ ions out and 2 K⁺ ions in. • The inside of the neuron is more negative compared to the outside. |
| What happens in the "Depolarization" stage of an action potential? | • A stimulus causes the membrane potential to reach the threshold (~-55 mV). • Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, allowing Na⁺ ions to rush into the neuron. • The membrane potential becomes more positive, rapidly rising toward +30 mV. |
| What happens in the "Peak of Action Potential" stage of an action potential? | • Membrane potential peaks at +30 mV. • Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels inactivate, stopping Na⁺ influx. • K⁺ channels open, starting K⁺ efflux and repolarization. • Absolute Refractory Period: Neuron can't fire because Na⁺ channels are inactivated. |
| What happens in the "Repolarization" stage of an action potential? | • K⁺ channels remain open, allowing K⁺ efflux. • Membrane potential becomes more negative, nearing resting state. • Absolute Refractory Period transitions to Relative Refractory Period as Na⁺ channels reset. |
| What happens in the "Hyperpolarization (Undershoot)" stage of an action potential? | • K⁺ channels stay open longer, causing membrane potential to dip below -70 mV. • Relative Refractory Period: Neuron can fire with a stronger stimulus (such as an ESPS). • Sodium-potassium pump restores ion gradients. |
| What happens in the "Return to Resting Potential" stage of an action potential? | • The membrane potential stabilizes at -70 mV. • The sodium-potassium pump continues to restore the ion balance by pumping Na⁺ out and K⁺ in, ensuring the neuron is ready for the next action potential. |
| What is a resting potential? | It's the state of the neuron when it is not firing an action potential. |
| What is a refractory period? | It is is a brief time/recovery period following an action potential where the neuron is unable to fire another action potential & cannot readily respond to a new stimulus, thus limiting the rate at which it can send signals. |
| What is an Absolute Refractory Period? | It is a type of refractory period which occurs immediately after an action potential in a neuron is fired, during which it is completely unable to generate another action potential, regardless of the stimulus strength. |
| What is a Relative Refractory Period? | It is a type of refractory period which occurs after an action potential when a neuron returns to a normal state, but only occurs with a stronger-than-normal stimulus due to its temporarily more negative membrane potential. |
| What is a membrane potential? | It is the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron. |
| What is a Na+ (sodium) ion channel? | It is an integral membrane protein embedded in the neuron's membrane that opens to allow Na+ ions to enter into the neuron's axon, causing depolarization and initiating an action potential. |
| What is a K+ (potassium) ion channel | It is an integral membrane protein embedded in the neuron's membrane that opens to allow K+ ions to flow out of the neuron's axon, causing repolarization and restoring the resting membrane potential. |
| What is a sodium-potassium pump? | It is a type of active transport protein embedded in the neuron's membrane that uses ATP as energy to pump sodium back out and potassium back in, restoring ion gradients and maintaining resting potential after an action potential. |
| What is a voltage-dependent calcium (Ca2+) channel? | It is a type of ion channel that controls the flow of calcium ions into the neuron. It opens in response to membrane depolarization, allowing Ca²⁺ ions to enter the axon terminal, which triggers neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft. |
| What is a EPSP (excitatory post-synaptic potential)? | It is a type of graded potential that occurs when neurotransmitters bind to receptors, causing an positively charged ion influx, depolarizing the membrane, and increasing the likelihood of the neuron firing an action potential or sending an impulse. |
| What is a IPSP (inhibitory post-synaptic potential)? | It is a type of graded potential that occurs when neurotransmitters bind to receptors, causing negatively charged ions to enter, hyperpolarizing the membrane, and decreasing the likelihood of the neuron firing an action potential or sending an impulse. |
| What is a motor neuron? | It's a type of neuron located in the CNS that connects to muscles, glands, and organs throughout the body. These neurons transmit impulses from the spinal cord to skeletal and smooth muscles and directly controls all of our muscle movements. |
| What is a sensory neuron? | It's a type of neuron located in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord that is activated by sensory input from the environment This neuron sends off signals to the rest of the nervous system about the information they have received. |
| What is an interneuron? | It's a type of neuron that allows motor neurons and sensory neurons to communicate with each other. This neuron connects to various neurons within the brain and spinal cord (CNS) and are easy to recognize due to their short axons. |
| What are glial cells? | They are cells in the nervous system that provide physical and chemical support to neurons and maintain their environment. |
| Name all the types of glial cells. | • Astrocytes • Microglial Cells/Microglia • Ependymal Cells • Oligodendrocytes • Satellite Cells • Schwann Cells |
| What are astrocytes? | They are glial cells in the CNS that perform metabolic, structural, homeostatic, and neuroprotective tasks such as clearing excess neurotransmitters, stabilizing and regulating the blood-brain barrier, and promoting synapse formation. |
| What are microglial cells/microglia? | They are glial cells in the CNS that are immune cells. They act as the "clean-up crew" by patrolling the central nervous system, detecting and eliminating damaged cells, debris, pathogens, and maintaining overall tissue health. |
| What are ependymal cells? | They are glial cells in the CNS that line the brain’s ventricles and spinal cord’s central canal. They help produce, circulate, and monitor cerebrospinal fluid. |
| What are oligodendrocytes? | They are glial cells in the CNS that are myelinating cells. They wrap, insulate, and form myelin sheath for multiple axons. They support axons for faster information transfer, mainly those that travel long distances within the brain. |
| What are satellite cells? | They are glial cells in the PNS that surround neuron cell bodies in the ganglia. They provide protection, nutrition, and environmental regulation to maintain the health and proper function of neurons. They perform similar functions to astrocytes. |
| What are schwann cells? | They are glial cells in the PNS that wrap around neuron axons to form the myelin sheath, help separate and insulate neurons, speed up nerve impulses, keep neurons alive, and regenerate peripheral neurons. They only supply myelin to one neuron at a time. |
| What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)? | It is a clear fluid that bathes and cushions the brain and spinal cord, circulates nutrients, and removes waste products, helping to protect and maintain the central nervous system. |
| What is the blood brain barrier (BBB)? | It is a highly selective, semi-permeable barrier that separates circulating blood from the brain and CSF, protecting and regulating substance exchange to maintain a stable, controlled environment in the CNS. |
| What is the brain? | It is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger, and many other processes. |
| What is the cerebrum (a.k.a the cerebral cortex)? | It's the largest part of the brain that has two hemispheres. It controls voluntary movement, speech, intelligence, memory, emotion, sensory processing, etc. |
| What is the left hemisphere & what is it responsible for? | It's the left half of the cerebrum. It's responsible for logic, rational thought, planning, math, science, etc. |
| What is right hemisphere & what is it responsible for? | It's the right half of the cerebrum. It's responsible for creativity, imagination, emotional thought, writing, art, etc. |
| What are brain commissures? | They are a collection of nerve fibers that connect the left and right hemispheres, allowing communication between them. These fiber bundles cross the midline of the brain, essentially linking corresponding areas in the two hemispheres. |
| What is the corpus callosum? | It’s a type of brain commissure that connects the left and right hemispheres together, allowing communication between both sides of the brain. |
| What is the anterior commissure? | It’s a type of brain commissure that links the temporal lobes, olfactory bulbs, and parts of the amygdala, playing a role in smell, memory, and emotional processing across hemispheres. |
| What is the posterior commissure? | It’s a type of brain commissure that connects midbrain structures, especially those involved in the pupillary light reflex, helping coordinate visual responses like pupil constriction when exposed to bright light. |
| What is the hippocampal commissure (a.k.a the commissure of the fornix)? | It’s a type of brain commissure that joins the hippocampi, supporting memory consolidation and spatial navigation by allowing communication between memory-processing centers in both cerebral hemispheres. |
| What is the habenular commissure? | It’s a type of brain commissure that links the left and right habenular nuclei, relaying emotional and sensory information and influencing pain processing, sleep regulation, and motivational behaviors. |
| What is gray matter? | It is tissue in the brain that contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses, processing info for perception, movement, cognition, and emotion, located in cortical, subcortical, and spinal regions. It has minimal myelin, producing it's gray color. |
| What is white matter? | It is tissue in the brain that contains myelinated axons enabling fast communication between cortical and subcortical regions, coordinating neural networks, located deep to the cortex and in major tracts. It's lipid‑rich myelin produces it's white color |
| What is the forebrain (a.k.a the prosencephalon)? | It is the largest part of the brain, most of which is the cerebrum. It also includes the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the rest of the diencephalon. It controls cognitive, sensory, and motor functions. |
| What is the midbrain (a.k.a the mesencephalon)? | It is a part of the brain that connects the forebrain to the hindbrain and acts like a switchbord for between the brain and the nervous system. It includes the tectum, tegmentum, and cerebral peduncles, and helps with vision, hearing, and motor control. |
| What is the hindbrain (a.k.a the rhombencephalon)? | It is a part of the brain that is an extension of the spinal cord. It connects the brain to the body, enabling message transmission. It includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum, and is responsible for balance, coordination, and our breathing. |
| What is the interbrain (a.k.a the diencephalon)? | It is a part of the brain that includes the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pineal gland. It is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems and plays a major role in regulating homeostasis and relaying sensory information. |
| Name all the lobes of the brain. | - The Frontal Lobe - The Parietal Lobe - The Temporal Lobe - The Occipital Lobe - The Insular Lobe (Insula) |
| Where is the frontal lobe located? What is it responsible for? | It is located at the front of the brain. It is responsible for cognitive functions such as memory, emotions, impulse control, problem-solving, judgment, and motor function. |
| Where is the parietal lobe located? What is it responsible for? | It is located at the top of the brain. It is responsible for sensory perception and integration, including the management of taste, temperature, and touch. |
| Where is the temporal lobe located? What is it responsible for? | It is located at the bottom of the brain. It is responsible for language comprehension, sound processing, memory, facial recognition, and emotional association. |
| Where is the occipital lobe located? What is it responsible for? | It is located at the back of the brain. It is responsible for sight, visuospatial processing, distance perception, and depth perception. |
| Where is the insular lobe (insula) located? What is it responsible for? | It is located deep within the lateral sulcus. It is responsible for interoception, taste, emotion processing, pain perception, and integrating bodily states with decision-making and social behavior. |
| What is the limbic system? | It's a complex system of nerves and networks in the brain, involving several areas near the edge of the cortex. It controls the basic emotions (fear, pleasure, anger, etc.) and basic drives (hunger, sex, etc.). |
| What is the cingulate cortex? | It is a part of the limbic system located above the corpus callosum. It is involved in emotion, pain processing, decision-making, attention, and linking behavioral outcomes to motivation. |
| What is the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC)? | It is the front portion of the anterior cingulate cortex, involved in emotion regulation, conflict monitoring, and mood. It plays a key role in depression and emotional self-awareness. |
| What is the caudal cingulate cortex? | It is the middle portion of the anterior cingulate cortex that contributes to motor control, error detection, and behavioral adjustment, especially during tasks requiring attention and performance monitoring. |
| What is the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)? | It is the back portion of the cingulate cortex that is located behind the corpus callosum and is involved in memory retrieval, self-reflection, and spatial orientation. It is a key node in the brain’s default mode network. |
| What is the thalamus? | It is a paired brain structure located in the diencephalon that acts as a relay station, transmitting sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness. |
| What is the anterior thalamic nuclei? | They are part of the limbic system located in the anterior part of the thalamus. It plays a role in memory processing, emotional regulation, and relaying signals between the mammillary bodies and the cingulate gyrus. |
| What is the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)? | It is a thalamic structure that receives visual input from the retina via the optic tract and sends it to the primary visual cortex for conscious visual perception. |
| What is the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN)? | It is the posterior thalamus that relays auditory information from the inferior colliculus to the auditory cortex, playing a critical role in hearing perception, sound localization, and auditory attention. |
| What is the hypothalamus? | It's a part of the limbic system that regulates functions like hunger, appetite, thirst, stress, and sleep patterns and regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. It also connects to and stimulates the autonomic nervous system. |
| What are the mamillary bodies? | They are a pair of small, round bodies in the limbic system that are connected to the amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus. They play a role in maintaining a sense of direction and also play a role in how recognitional memory is processed. |
| What is the amygdala? | It's a lima bean-sized neural cluster in the limbic system. It is associated with different behaviors linked to basic survival including fight or flight behaviors and emotional regulation. |
| What is the hippocampus? | It's a part of the limbic system that is a complex brain structure embedded deep into the temporal lobe. It has a major role in learning and memory formation. |
| What is the fornix? | It's a part of the limbic system that is a C-shaped white matter tract connecting the hippocampus to other limbic structures, playing a key role in memory and emotional processing. |
| What is the basal forebrain? | It’s part of the limbic system located at the front and bottom of the forebrain. It’s a collection of interconnected structures that produce acetylcholine, playing a role in sleep-wake cycles, memory, attention, arousal, and learning. |
| What is the nucleus accumbens? | It’s part of the limbic system located in the ventral striatum. It plays a role in reward processing, motivation, reinforcement learning, and linking emotions to goal-directed behavior. |
| What is the diagonal band of Broca? | It’s part of the limbic system and the basal forebrain. It plays a role in memory, learning, and modulating hippocampal activity through cholinergic projections. |
| What are septal nuclei (septum pellucidum)? | They are part of the limbic system and basal forebrain, located beneath the corpus callosum. They are involved in processing reward, pleasure, and reinforcement, and play a role in emotional bonding and regulating autonomic functions. |
| What is the entorhinal cortex? | It’s part of the limbic system located in the medial temporal lobe. It plays a role in memory formation, spatial navigation, and serving as the main interface between the hippocampus and neocortex. |
| Name the 2 glands in the human brain. | 1. The Pituitary Gland 2. The Pineal Gland |
| What is the pituitary gland? | It’s a gland that is located below the hypothalamus and is known as the “master gland.” It secretes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, stress, and reproduction by controlling other endocrine glands in the body. |
| What is the pineal gland? | It's a gland that is located near the brain’s center, between the two hemispheres. It secretes melatonin and regulates circadian rhythms, helping control the sleep-wake cycle based on light and darkness. |
| What is the basil ganglia? | It is a group of subcortical nuclei involved in controlling movement, habit formation, and reward. It includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, and the globus pallidus. |
| What is the caudate nucleus? | It is a C-shaped structure in the basal ganglia involved in motor control, learning, goal-directed behavior,and reward-related processes. |
| What is the putamen? | It is a round structure in the basal ganglia that works with the caudate nucleus and globus pallidus to regulate voluntary movement and motor learning. |
| What is the globus pallidus? | It is a component of the basal ganglia that helps control and fine tune voluntary movement by inhibiting excessive motor activity. |
| What is the brain stem? | It is the lowest part of the brain, connecting to the spinal cord. It controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and alertness, and contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla. |
| What is the reticular formation? | It is a network of neurons running through the brainstem that regulates arousal, attention, consciousness, and the sleep-wake cycle. |
| What is the tectum? | It is the dorsal part of the midbrain, containg the superior colliculus and the inferior colliculus. It helps process visual and auditory reflexes like tracking movement and reacting to sounds. |
| What is the pretectal area (pretectum)? | It is a midbrain region just anterior to the superior colliculus that coordinates the pupillary light reflex by relaying visual signals to parasympathetic nuclei. |
| What is the superior colliculus? | It is a structure that is part of the tectum. It processes visual information and controls reflexive eye movements and visual attention. |
| What is the inferior colliculus? | It is a structure that is part of the tectum. It processes auditory information and helps orient the head and body toward sounds. |
| What is the cerebral aqueduct / aqueduct of sylvius? | It is a narrow midbrain channel between the tectum and tegmentum in the midbrain that connects the third and fourth ventricles, allowing cerebrospinal fluid to flow between them. |
| What is the tegmentum? | It is a midbrain region that is beneath the tectum that helps to regulate movement, arousal, and autonomic functions through structures like the red nucleus and parts of the reticular formation. |
| What is the periaqueductal grey matter? | It is region that is a part of the tegmentum that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct. It is involved in pain modulation, defensive behavior, and autonomic regulation by integrating sensory input and initiating descending pain inhibitory pathways. |
| What is the mesencephalic nucleus of the CN V? | It is a sensory nucleus of the trigeminal nerve (CN V) located in the tegmentum in the midbrain. It processes proprioceptive input from the face, teeth, and jaw muscles, especially during chewing. |
| What is the oculomotor nucleus (CN III)? | It is a nucleus located in the tegmentum in the midbrain that is slightly below the superior colliculus and is near the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. It sends out motor fibers for cranial nerve III and controls most eye movements. |
| What is the Edinger-Westphal nucleus? | It is a nucleus located in the tegmentum in the midbrain that controls pupil constriction and lens shape by sending parasympathetic fibers through cranial nerve III to the eye's intrinsic muscles. |
| What is the Trochlear Nucleus (CN IV)? | It is a motor nucleus in the tegmentum in the midbrain that controls the superior oblique muscle via cranial nerve IV, enabling downward and outward eye movement. |
| What is the red nucleus? | It is a nucleus located in the tegmentum in the midbrain that is involved in motor coordination. It relays signals from the cerebellum to the spinal cord and helps control limb movement, especially during posture and gait adjustments. |
| What is the ventral tegmental area (VTA)? | It is a structure located in the tegmentum in the midbrain that is involved in reward, motivation, and addiction, producing dopamine and connecting to limbic and cortical regions. |
| What is the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF)? | It is a small brainstem tract located in the tegmentum in the midbrain that coordinates eye and head movements by connecting the nuclei of cranial nerves III, IV, and VI. It plays a key role in gaze stabilization. |
| What is medial longitudinal fasciculus (ML)? | It is a large brainstem tract located in the tegmentum in the midbrain that carries touch, vibration, and proprioception signals from the body to the thalamus, passing through the medulla, pons, and midbrain. |
| What is the substantia nigra? | It is a midbrain structure that lies beneath the tegmentum and above the cerebral peduncles, forming part of the basis of the midbrain. It regulates movement, produces dopamine, and degenerates in Parkinson’s Disease. |
| What are the cerebral peduncles? | They are fiber bundles in the midbrain that carry motor commands from the cerebral cortex to the brainstem and spinal cord, aiding in voluntary muscle control. |
| What are the pons? | It is a part of the brainstem located below the midbrain. It relays signals between the cerebrum and cerebellum and contains nuclei involved in sleep, respiration, and facial sensation. |
| What is the is the pontine tegmentum (dorsal pons)? | It is the dorsal part of the pons that houses cranial nerve nuclei, ascending sensory tracts, and part of the reticular formation, playing roles in sensation, sleep, and autonomic functions. |
| What is the basis pontis (ventral pons)? | It is the ventral portion of the pons containing pontine nuclei and descending motor tracts. It relays motor signals from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum. |
| What is the medulla? | It is the lowest part of the brainstem, located below the pons. It controls vital autonomic functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure, and connects the brain to the spinal cord. |
| What is the medullary tegmentum? | It is the dorsal part of the medulla oblongata that contains cranial nerve nuclei, sensory pathways, and the reticular formation, playing roles in autonomic functions, arousal, and reflexes. |
| What are the olives? | They are rounded structures on the lateral medulla containing the inferior olivary nuclei, which relay motor signals to the cerebellum and support coordination, motor learning, and timing. |
| What are the pyramids? | They are paired, medial, ventral structures on the medulla containing corticospinal motor fibers that carry voluntary movement signals from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord. |
| What is the pyramidal decussation? | It is the area at the lower medulla where most corticospinal motor fibers cross to the opposite side, enabling contralateral control of voluntary movements by the brain over the body. |
| What is the cerebellum? | It is a brain structure located behind the brainstem that coordinates voluntary movements, balance, posture, and motor learning. It receives input from the sensory systems and the cerebral cortex. |
| What is the cervicomedullary junction? | It is the anatomical junction between the medulla oblongata and the spinal cord, marking the transition from brainstem to spinal cord and occurring near the level of the pyramidal decussation. |
| What is the spinal cord? | It is a long, thin nervous structure extending from the brainstem to the coccygeal segment. It bridges communication between the brain and peripheral nervous system, carrying signals for movement, reflexes, and sensation. |
| Name all the segments of the spinal cord. | 1. Cervical 2. Thoracic 3. Lumbar 4. Sacral 5. Coccygeal |
| What is the cervical spinal cord segment? | It is the top spinal region with 8 segments, controlling the neck, shoulders, arms, and diaphragm. It connects the brainstem to the rest of the spinal cord. |
| What are the names of the 8 cervical spinal cord segments? | The names of the segments are C1–C8. C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, & C8. |
| How are the 8 cervical spinal cord segments positioned? | C1–C7 spinal nerves exit above their matching vertebrae; C8 exits below C7 vertebra since no C8 vertebra exists. From T1 downward, spinal nerves exit below their corresponding vertebrae. |
| What is the thoracic spinal cord segment? | It is the mid-back spinal region with 12 segments that innervate the chest, upper back, and abdominal muscles, aiding posture and trunk stability. |
| What are the names of the 12 thoracic spinal cord segments? | The names of the segments are T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, T10, T11, & T12. |
| How are the 12 thoracic spinal cord segments positioned? | T1–T12 spinal nerves exit below their corresponding vertebrae. Starting with T1 (below T1 vertebra) through T12, this pattern continues consistently, unlike the cervical region where C1–C7 exit above. |
| What is the lumbar spinal cord segment? | It is the lower back region with 5 segments that control the hips, thighs, knees, and parts of the lower leg. It supports walking and weight-bearing movement. |
| What are the names of the 5 lumbar spinal cord segments? | The names of the segments are L1, L2, L3, L4, & L5. |
| How are the 5 lumbar spinal cord segments positioned? | L1–L5 spinal nerves exit below their corresponding vertebrae, continuing the pattern established by the C8 spinal nerve and thoracic region, with each nerve emerging beneath its matching lumbar vertebra. |
| What is the sacral spinal cord segment? | It is a pelvic spinal region with 5 segments, responsible for leg, foot, bowel, bladder, and sexual function. It contributes to voluntary and involuntary lower body control. |
| What are the names of the 5 sacral spinal cord segments? | The names of the segments are S1, S2, S3, S4, & S5. |
| How are the 5 sacral spinal cord segments positioned? | S1–S5 spinal nerves exit below their corresponding sacral segments through openings in the sacral foramina, continuing the pattern from L5, with each nerve emerging beneath its matching sacral segment. |
| What is the coccygeal spinal cord segment? | It is the lowest spinal region with 1 segment, near the tailbone, with minimal motor function. It helps with sensation around the coccyx and supports pelvic floor reflexes. |
| How is the 1 coccygeal spinal cord segment, Co1, positioned? | Co1 spinal nerve exits below the S5 segment, near the tailbone, through the sacral hiatus or near the coccyx, following the same pattern as the sacral nerves. |
| What is the dorsal root ganglion (DRG)? | They are a cluster of sensory neuron cell bodies located in the dorsal root of a spinal nerve, transmitting sensory information from the body to the spinal cord and brain. |
| What is the connective tissue capsule? | It is a protective outer layer of connective tissue that surrounds the dorsal root ganglion, providing structural support and helping to maintain the internal environment for the neurons and glial cells. |
| What is the ventricular system? | It is a set of interconnected cavities in the brain filled with CSF, cushioning the brain and removing waste. It includes the lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle. |
| What are the lateral ventricles? | They are the two large, C shaped cavities located in each cerebral hemisphere. They produce and circulate CSF and are the largest ventricles in the brain. |
| What is the third ventricle? | It is the narrow, midline cavity located in the diencephalon betwen the two halves of the thalamus. It connects to the lateral ventricles via the interventricular foramina. |
| What is the fourth ventricle? | It is located between the brainstem and the cerebellum. It connects to the third ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct and drains cerebrospinal fluid into the spinal cord and subarachnoid space. |
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