Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
patho exam 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| etiology | the original cause of cellular alteration or disease (where it comes from) ex: infection, trauma, etc |
| homeostasis | a state of equilibrium when various physiologic factors are within normal limits |
| allostasis | body's way of adapting to acute stress to maintain homeostasis |
| cellular adaptation | protective mechanism to prevent cellular and tissue harm because of stressors |
| pathognomic changes | unique histological findings that represent district disease processes |
| histology | microscopic study of tissues and cells for diagnostic purposes |
| biopsy | an extraction of cell samples from an organ or mass of tissue to allow for histological examination |
| when homeostasis is lost, _______ can occur | illness |
| what are the major intracellular electrolytes? | potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate ions |
| how many binding sites does a carrier protein have for sodium and potassium in the sodium potassium pump? | 3 for sodium 2 for potassium |
| sodium is a _____________ | extracellular electrolyte |
| potassium is a _________ | intracellular electrolyte |
| respiration | chemical reaction which turns glucose into energy |
| what are the products of anaerobic respiration? | lactic acid, 2 ATP but not enough to function adequately |
| what are the products of aerobic respiration? | 34 energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, water |
| what is cellular edema | when excess fluid enters the cell, causing swelling |
| what is cellular dehydration | when the cell shrinks and and excess fluid leaves |
| what is an antigen | cell marker on the cell membrane |
| active transport | movement of molecules against the concentration gradient ex: sodium-potassium pump, helps to maintain resting potential in cellular fluid volume |
| the more energy a cell needs, the more ___________ the cell will have | mitochondria ex: muscle cells have more mitochondria than bone cells |
| mom provides the genes for the DNA in your _________ | mitochondria |
| damage to mitochondrial DNA can play a role in | diabetes, cancer, heart disease |
| aerobic metabolism | provides max amount of energy for cellular function, waste product is CO2, net yield is 34 ATP |
| hypoxia can occur when | your blood has low oxygen levels |
| cellular adaptation | protective mechanism to maintain balance/homeostasis when change occurs in the body |
| cell differentiation | when a cell goes from simple to more specialized, think of it as the cell maturing ex} stem cell differentiates to a parent cell to a red blood cell |
| cell atrophy | when muscle cells shrink from lack of use, decrease in demand |
| cell hypertrophy | enlarging of cells due to excessive use (growing muscle by lifting weights), causes angiogenesis |
| angiogenesis | production of new blood cells that are needed when cells are becoming hypertrophied |
| pathologic hypertrophy | enlarging of cells that is not wanted ex) enlarging of left heart ventricle, less blood is pushing out to body |
| hyperplasia | increase in number of cells, occurs in response to stimulus ex) breast tissue increases in size during pregnancy |
| metaplasia | one cell is replaced by another type, reversible change, usually caused by chronic irritation ex) esophageal cells that are constantly exposed to reflux will be replaced by stomach like cells |
| neoplasia | new cell growth, can be malignant or benign |
| dysplasia | cells change to abnormal cells, cells vary in shape and size, can lead to cancer ex) cervix cells change shape/size with lack of estrogen |
| benign cells | well defined borders, slow progressive growth, doesn't invade surrounding tissues, does not spread by metastasis |
| malignant cells | undifferentiated, poorly defined borders, more rapid rate of growth, gains access to blood and lymph channels to metastasize to other areas of the body |
| hypoxia can cause _____________ | cell injury |
| endothelium | layer of cells that line the interior of our vessels, key role in vascular function, responsive to blood flow changes, stress forces |
| endothelin | secreted by endothelium when |
| atherosclerosis | thickening or hardening of the arteries caused by a buildup of plaque in the inner lining of an artery |
| hypertension | shear force weakens wall over time, can cause rupture (aneurysm) |
| hyperglycemia | level of glucose in the blood is higher than normal. |
| hyperlipidemia | high lipid levels in the blood, can cause atherogenesis, which is a disorder of the artery wall that involves: adhesion of monocytes and lymphocytes to the endothelial cell surface; |
| apoptosis | programmed cell death (ex: ovaries degenerate during menopause) |
| what diseases are associated with apoptosis dysfunction? | 1. prostate cancer: decreased apoptosis, continue to enlarge and multiply 2. spinal muscle atrophy: increased apoptosis |
| necrosis | irreversible process, cell membrane disintegrates, body initiates inflammatory reaction |
| infarction | death of tissue as a consequence of prolonged ischemia (lack of oxygenated blood to tissues) |
| what is clostridium perfringens | an anaerobic bacteria that emits gas as it destroys tissues (gas gangrene) |
| what is a gene | a fundamental unit of DNA, changes in DNA can be linked to diseases |
| epigenetic changes | alterations in gene expression due to environmental stressors, behaviors, lifestyle |
| pharmacogenetics | gene function in health, disease, and response to medications |
| genetics | the study of inherited traits |
| genomics | the study of interactions of all genetic material (not only genes) |
| what is a nucleotide made up of? | pentose sugar, phosphate, purine or pyrimidine nitrogen base |
| what bases of DNA pair together? | in DNA: A-T and C-G pairs in RNA: A-U and C-G |
| exon | the portion of the genome that encodes proteins |
| introns | the portion of genome that does not code for protein |
| codon | a set of 3 nucleotides that signal a specific amino acid |
| genetic mutations | damage or change to a gene that alters genetic code, may be inherited or occur sporatically |
| germ cell mutation | gametes affected: MAY BE PASSED TO OFFSPRING |
| somatic cell mutation | body cells are affected, NOT PASSED TO OFFSPRING |
| transcription vs translation | transcription pertains to how mRNA is made and occurs in the nucleus of the cell translation pertains to how mRNA is "transcripted" or read and used to make protein, this process happens in the ribosome |
| what are enhancers and silencers | transcription factor binding sites on DNA that affect DNA transcription rates |
| genotype vs phenotype | genotype: genetic code phenotype: physical expression of genes |
| mendelian inheritance | 1 copy of a gene is inherited from each parent (punnet square) |
| what are free radicals | A type of unstable molecule that is made during normal cell metabolism (chemical changes that take place in a cell). Free radicals can build up in cells and cause damage to other molecules, such as DNA, lipids, and proteins. |
| cellular regulation issues can lead to ___________, which can turn into cancer | abnormal growths |
| angiogenesis | formation of new blood cells |
| carcionogenesis | initiation of cancer formation |
| epigenetics | outside factors that lead to changes in DNA for the worst (ex: sun exposure, bad air quality, etc) - if you are pulled away from these factors sometimes DNA can change back to normal |
| what factors lead to the formation of cancer? | - loss of sensitivity to growth inhibitory signals - evasion of apoptosis (programmed cell death) - limitless replication potential - angiogenesis (process of forming new blood vessels from existing ones) - potential for metastatic/tissue invasion |
| cancer is the __________ leading cause of death | 2nd (heart disease is #1) |
| what is the most common type of cancer in men? | prostate |
| what is the most common type of cancer in women | breast |
| common causes of cancer: | viruses, chronic inflammation, radiation, chemicals that contain highly reactive oxygen species (ROS or free radicals), lifestyle, diet, environment, tobacco |
| what are tumor supressor genes | genes that guard against cancer |
| proto-oncogenes mutate to ____________ which allow unrestrained cell division | oncogenes |
| what do proto-oncogenes do | they control normal cell growth and proliferation |
| what are the 3 steps of carcinogenesis | 1. initiation: ititial damage to DNA 2. promotion: altered cells divide and pass on abnormal DNA (still benign at this stage) 3. progression: benign lesions acquire ability to proliferate and invade adjacent tissue or metastasize (cancer) |
| neoplasia | new growth, tumor |
| benign | abnormal cells that REMAIN LOCALIZED |
| malignant | SPREAD to other areas |
| adenoma | benign tumor, glandular tissue or organ aden: gland oma: tumor |
| lipoma | derived from fat cells |
| hemangioma | collection of blood vessels in the skin or internal organs |
| desmoid tumors | can be highly invasive but do not metastisize |
| nevi | non cancerous moles on the skin |
| myoma | tumor of the muscle |
| carcinoma | malignant epithelial cells |
| adenocarcinoma | cancer of the glandular or ductal tissue |
| sarcoma | originates in the connective tissue, cartilage, bone |
| leukemia | cancerous changes in leukocytes (WBCs) |
| lymphoma | cancerous lymphocytes in lymph tissue |
| what is tumor grading? | a classification of tumor cells to determine the degree of how differentiated they are - determined Gx-G4 through biopsy and histological study |
| what is immunocompetence | when your immune system is competent in detecting tumor cell antigens and destroying them before they grow |
| clinical manifestations of cancer | -initial symptoms usually related to primary site of involvement (ex: lung cancer will manifest as shortness of breath, chest pain) - fatique/ sleep disorders - anorexia (no appetite) - cachexia (wasting away of muscle and tissue) - anemia - pain |
| what are paraneoplastic syndromes | symptoms unrelated to the actual tumor but provoked by the presence of cancer |
| different tiers of cancer prevention | 1. primary: prevention from getting sick 2. secondary: screenings such as pap smears, physicals, etc 3. tertiary: stop progression of the cancer to late stages |
| what are the main sites of metastasis in bladder cancer | bone, liver, lung |
| what are the main sites of metastasis in breast cancer | bone, brain, liver, lung |
| what are the main sites of metastasis in colon cancer | liver, lung, peritoneum |
| what are the main sites of metastasis in kidney cancer | adrenal gland, bone, brain, liver, lung |
| what are the main sites of metastasis in lung cancer | adrenal gland, bone, brain, liver, other lung |
| A nurse is working with a young child who recently fell off his bike and must have his leg in a cast for 6 weeks. He has overheard a conversation in which the phrase “muscle atrophy” was used. How should the nurse explain what this means? | The nurse should tell the child that when the cast is removed, his leg may appear smaller than normal. |
| A skin biopsy reveals a malignant neoplasm. Which statement supports this conclusion? | the biopsy revealed cells with disorganized arrangement |
| While reading a medical journal article, you learn that HIV infection increases the rate of apoptosis in CD4 cells. What can you likely expect to find in laboratory values? | lower than normal CD4 levels present with HIV infection |
| Endoscopic results reveal metaplastic changes in the duodenum. Which of the following statements describes these cellular changes? | metaplasia is the replacement of one cell type by another |
| what conditions are associated with pathological calcification | microcalcification in breast tissue, aortic sclerosis, arteriosclerosis |
| Which of the following would cause concern on a karyotype? | - 47 XXY (indicates an extra X chromosome on the karyotype) - two pairs of sex chromosomes (you only need 1 pair) - 45 X0 (this indicates a missing chromosome) |
| Both parents are heterozygous for a recessive trait. What percentage of their offspring will be carriers for the trait? | 50% |
| “My mom does not have familial hypercholesterolemia at all. My dad has two genes for it.” The patient asks, “What is my chance of getting this disease?” What is the likelihood, in percentages, that the patient has inherited the disorder? | 100% |
| What would be a correct statement by a nurse working with parents who have given birth to a child with an inheritable disease and ask the following: “We, and two of our children, are fine. So why does our other son have this disease?” | " your son with the illness has 2 copies of the gene for this disease" (this is a recessive disease) |
| Results from a patient’s family history and genetic testing results reveal that the patient is homozygous dominant for an autosomal dominant disease. Which of the following explanations to the patient by the nurse is correct? | "you have 100% chance of passing the genetics for this disease on to your offspring and your offspring developing the condition" |
| A young man with very tall, lanky stature is known to have an inherited disease of the connective tissue. Which of the following statements may the young man make relative to his follow-up care? | " why is everyone always worried about my heart?" (The patient has Marfan's which damages microfibrils in the aorta, heart valves, lung, and dura mater |
| A patient has tested positive for breast cancer (BRCA)1 and BRCA2 mutations. She wants to reduce her risk of cancer with surgical removal of tissues most at risk for developing cancer based on these test results. Which procedures may be considered? | mastectomy and oophorectomy (ovaries) |
| What examinations may be beneficial for early detection of prostate cancer? | digital rectal exam |
| A nursing student is reviewing the cell cycle. Please place the following events in the proper sequence beginning with Gap 1 (G1). | G1, S, G2, Mitotic Process, Cell splitting |
| A patient is concerned about colorectal cancer. She wants to know at what age she should begin to have colonoscopy examinations. She has no known risk factors for colorectal cancer. Which of the following is the correct response? | 50 years |
| Which of the following staging classifications would indicate a small tumor, with no lymph node involvement and no metastasis? | T1 N0 M0 |
| A nurse is explaining to a patient the importance of regular Pap smears. Which cancer can the Pap smear be an early test for detecting? | cervical cancer |
| Which of the following is true about brain tumors? | brain tumors will increase ICP intercranial pressure |
| Which of the following does the clinician need to take into account when evaluating the status of a patient’s skin? | - exposure to irritants - home remedies - possible allergic reaction - medication photosensitivity - UV exposure |
| A nursing student is learning the “ABCDE” for melanoma and has forgotten what “E” represents. Which of the following is correct for the letter “E”? | evolution |
| A patient experiencing anhidrosis is hospitalized in an area known to be warmer than normal. Which of the following should the nurse expect? | maintain awareness of the patient's body temperature |
| A patient with advanced renal failure has the following report: “denies pruritus.” Which of the following is the correct interpretation for the nurse to make? | the patient is not experiencing itching |
| In considering burn patient nutritional needs, what combinations occurs in burn patients? | increased basal metabolic rate and decreased GI absorption |
| A nurse is treating a burn wound on a patient. She notes that the outer area of the burn is red in color. What is true about this area of the wound? | the area is referred to as the zone of hyperemia |
| what is the most common type of burn | thermal |
| A patient has suffered a superficial partial-thickness burn on his leg. Which tissue layers have been burned? | epidermis and papillary dermis |
| A paramedic arrives on an accident scene and quickly assesses that the total body surface area damaged by burn is 27% for the patient. What did the paramedic use to arrive at this conclusion? | rule of nines |
| A nurse is asked to record the size of the zone of coagulation for a burn victim. Which of the following is appropriate? | measure diameter of the most severely burned area |
Created by:
hayleyherdman