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physio reporting
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| the founder of evolutionary theory. | Charles Darwin |
| what term does charles darwin prefer to call evolution? | descent with modification |
| change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population. | evolutiom |
| emphasizing the idea of changes without necessarily implying improvement. | descent with modification |
| *Darwin’s insight was that nature also ____ | selects |
| Darwin argued that _______when repeated for generation after generation, leads to the evolution of species that are better adapted to surviving and reproducing in their particular environmental niche. | natural selection |
| Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes that aided their success | Theory of Evolution: Natural Selection |
| 4 kinds of Supporting Evidences | 1. Fossil Records 2. Stirking Structural Similarities 3. Major Changes by Selective Breeding 4. Direct Observation of rapid evolution in progress |
| Supporting Evidence: _____ change systematically through geological layers. | Fossil Records |
| Supporting Evidence: suggests that similarities among living species had evolved from common ancestors. | Stirking Structural Similarities |
| Supporting Evidence: evolution can be observed through the selective breeding program of animals and plants. | Major Changes by Selective Breeding |
| Supporting Evidence: observed evolutions of the finches of the Galapagos Islands after a single season of drought. | Direct Observation of rapid evolution in progress |
| Conditions where natural selection occur: | Variation Inheritance Struggle for existence |
| condition: Structure, Physiology, Behavior | Variation |
| condition: heritable traits | Inheritance |
| condition: rate of reproduction and survival | Struggle for existence |
| ability of an organism to survive and contribute its genes to the next generation | “Fitness” by C. Darwin |
| choose individuals with a desired trait and make them the next generation's parents | Artificial Selection |
| also called "selective breeding”, | Artificial Selection |
| is where humans select for desirable traits in agricultural products or animals, rather than leaving the species to evolve and change gradually without human interference, like in natural selection. | Artificial Selection or Selective Breeding |
| The first ______ to protect their dorsal nerve cords evolved about 25 million years later. | Evolution of Vertebrates chordates with spinal bones |
| The spinal bones are called_____and the chordates that possess them are called ____ | Evolution of Vertebrates vertebrae, vertebrates |
| The advantages of life on land were so great that natural selection transformed the fins and gills of bony fishes into l____. And so it was that the first ____ evolved about 400 million years ago. | Evolution of Amphibians legs and lungs amphibians |
| About 300 million years ago, ____ evolved from a branch of amphibians. They were the first vertebrates to lay ____ and to be covered by dry scales. | Evolution of Reptiles reptiles lay shell-covered eggs |
| 180 million years ago, during the height of the age of dinosaurs, new class of vertebrates evolved from one line of small reptiles. females fed their young with secretions frm special glands called mammary glands, and the members of the class are ___ | Evolution of Mammals mammals |
| Primates of the tribe that includes humans are the_____ | hominini |
| Hominini: this tribe is composed of 6 genera | Australopithecus Paranthropus Sahelanthropus Orrorin Pan Homo |
| ____ is thought to be composed of at least eight species. seven of those species are now extinct, whereas ____ are not. | Homos Homo Sapiens |
| Evolution is better described as branching from a certain point or ancestry | Evolution does not proceed in a single line- |
| Modern humans or homo sapiens have only existed around 200,000- 300,000 years ago, while other hominin or humanlike species had existed several million years ago at most. | Humans and evolutionary supremacy- |
| Rapid evolutionary changes can be triggered by sudden changes in the environment or by adaptive genetic mutations | Evolution does not always proceed slowly and gradually |
| Fewer than 1 percent of all known species are still in existence | Few products of evolution survived- |
| although results are improvements in their particular environmental context, they are never perfect designs. | evolution as tinkerer |
| only one characteristic might be adaptive—the incidental nonadaptive evolutionary by-products are called spandrels | Not all existing behaviors or structures are adaptive |
| exaptations (evolved to serve one function and were later co-opted to serve another). | Not all existing characteristics evolved to perform their current functions- |
| Structures that are similar because they have a common evolutionary origin are termed homologous; structures that are similar but do not have a common evolutionary origin are termed analogous | Similarities do not mean common evolutionary origins- |
| There is now considerable evidence that Homo sapiens mated with the other Homo species. | Homo sapiens as a product of a single ancestral population- |
| structures that are similar; they have common evolutionary origin | homologous |
| structures that are similar; they do not have common evolutionary origin | analogous |
| 2 wise decisions of Mendel in Studying Inheritance | Dichotomous Traits True-Breeding Lines |
| occur in one form or the other, never in combination. For example, seed color is a dichotomous pea plant trait: Every pea plant has either brown seeds or white seeds. | Dichotomous Traits |
| are breeding lines in which interbred members always produce offspring with the same trait (e.g., brown seeds), generation after generation. | True breeding lines |
| Produces traits in individuals who have one copy of the allele, which can come from just one parent. Appeared in all of the first-generation offspring. | Dominant Trait |
| The individual must have two copies, one from each parent. Appeared in about one-quarter of the second-generation offspring. | Recessive Trait |
| Observable traits are referred to as its ____. example, height, hair color, eye color. | Phenotype |
| The traits that it can pass on its offspring through its genetic material. | Genotype |
| Organisms that possess two identical genes for a trait are said to be____ for that trait. | homozygous |
| Those that possess two different genes for a trait are said to be ____ for that trait. | heterozygous |
| 3 mendel laws | Law of Segregation Law of Independent assortment law of dominance and recesiveness |
| Mendel Law: “Gamete formation” during the formation of gamete or reproductive cell, each gene separates from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. Every gamete receives only one allele from its parent. | Law of Segregation |
| Mendel Laws: the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another. In other words, the allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene. | Law of Independent Assortment |
| Mendel Law: dominant - obvious recessive - not obvious | Law of Dominance and Recessiveness |
| group of genetic conditions in which a person has no or very little melanin pigment in their skin, hair and eyes | Albinism |
| Type of Albinism: the hair, skin and eyes are all affected | Oculocutaneous Albinism |
| Type of Albinism: is much less common, and involves only the eyes, while skin and hair color appear similar to that of family members. | Ocular Albinism |
| What causes Albinism? | genetic condition that you are born with. |
| is a disease that mostly affects your lungs and digestive system | Cystic Fibrosis |
| CF causes you to get a very thick and sticky mucus in your: | - lungs - airways - digestive system |
| progressive brain disorder caused by a single defective gene on chromosome 4 | Huntington’s Disease |
| What causes Huntington’s Disease? | caused by a faulty gene you are born with |
| congenital (from birth) condition in which males are born with one or more extra X chromosomes. unable to produce enough of the male hormone, testosterone, for the body’s needs. | Klinefelter’s (XXY) Syndrome |
| What causes Klinefelter’s Syndrome | result of a random genetic error that happens during the formation of the egg or the sperm, or it can happen after conception. |
| - occurs when chromosomes line up in their pairs and each pair cross over one another at random points. - Produces unique combinations of chromosomes from parental gametes | genetic recombination |
| single cell divides in such a way as to produce two genetically identical “daughter cells”. | mitosis |
| Primary functions of Mitosis | - Asexual reproduction - Growth and development |
| Sex Chromosomes | X Chromosomes Y Chromosomes |
| larger, more genes, X linked Inheritance | X Chromosomes |
| smaller,less genes, male characteristic (SRY), y Linked Inheritance | Y Chromosomes |
| Sex Linked Traits | Gene responsible for the trait is found on sex chromosome. |
| True or False: Mother always passes each of her X chromosome to both daughter and son. | True |
| True or False: Father passes his Y chromosome to his daughter. | False; X Chromosome |
| True or False: Father passes his Y chromosome to his son. | True |
| 2 Sex Linked Inheritance: | X linked Dominant X linked Recessive |
| - both male and female have chance to inherit the dominant (mutated gene) - one mutated gene is enough to be affected and express that trait/disorder Ex: Rett Syndrom | X linked Dominant |
| - male have higher chance (if mother has mutated copy, meaning either carrier or affected) | X linked Recessive |
| One mutated gene, one normal, not expressed, can be passed | carrier |
| expressed | affected |
| True or False: even if its recessive, if a male with 1 X Chromosome inherited it, matic expressed (Heterozygosity) | true |
| True or False: a female will inherit it ONLY IF both parents have mutated gene Ex: Color Blindness | true |
| male inheritance only Ex: Hairy ears | Y linked |
| is found inside the NUCLEUS of cell | chromosomes |
| It is a thread-like structure made up of long strands of DNA and proteins; | chromosomes |
| inside the DNA is ____ - basic unit of heredity. | genes |
| 4 nitrogenous or nucleotide bases found in DNA | Adenine for Thymine Guanine for Cytosine |
| tightly wraps itself | dna helix |
| DNA HELIX tightly wraps itself around ___ | histones |
| called “beads on a string”. ___ are proteins, used to help condense DNA into chromatin. | histones |
| called ____ , when a segment of DNA wraps around 8 histones / proteins. | NUCLEOSOMES |
| Forming a structure known as ____ - mixture of DNA + structural proteins / histones. | CHROMATIN or CHROMATIN FIBER |
| is an ultimate director for cells. It is a long molecule that carries all genetic information for inherited traits. | DNA |
| is how the DNA makes an exact copy of itself. | DNA Replication |
| where does DNA Replication takes place? | Inside nucleus of eukaryotic cells |
| when does DNA Replication takes place? | before cell division. So the new daughter cells can also get a copy of DNA. (happens before meiosis/ mitosis. In the time known as interphase.) |
| Two strands of DNA are not ____ ; they complement each other. | identical |
| Dna replication is semi-conservative each new strand retains ______ and it has a ___ copy. | one original copy new |
| DNA replication starts at a certain part called the | origin or original template dna. |
| the unzipping enzyme comes in and untwists the DNA strands. It keeps these two strands separated. | HELICASE |
| hold the nucleotides together or the dna strands together. - SSB proteins or the (Single Stranded Binding Proteins) | hydrogen bonds |
| an enzyme where it keeps the DNA strands from supercoiling. Dna gyres reduce the torsional strain from overwinding of the DNA. | Topoisomerase |
| comes in and makes RNA primers on both strands. It is important because otherwise dna polymerase won't know where to start. | primase |
| once it sees the primates or the rna primer it begins to synthesize the new strand of DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction. | dna polymerase |
| will seal the nick/ empty spaces between Okazaki fragments. | ligase |
| 4 key enzymes in DNA REPLICATION | Helicase - Primase - DNA Polymerase Ligase |
| - “The unzipping enzyme” | Helicase |
| “The initializer” produces RNA primers | primase |
| “The builder” | DNA Polymerase |
| “The gluer” | ligase |
| the process by which unspecialized cells, such as stem cells, become specialized and acquire distinct identities, functions, and characteristics.So, | cell diferentiation |
| refers to the process by which cells control the activity of their genes, leading to the production of distinct sets of proteins in different cell types or under different conditions. | Differential gene expression- |
| describes the process by which functional products (such as functional RNA and Proteins) are made from genes. | Gene expression |
| Types of Genes: | Regulatory Gene Constitutive Gene Non-constitutive Gene |
| Type of Genes: Control the expression of other genes | Regulatory Gene |
| Type of Genes: Expressed at relatively constant levels in all cell types and under all conditions. Transcribed continuously. | Constitutive Gene |
| Type of Genes: Genes which can be turned on and off (Turned on: Expressed/Induced, Turned off: Repressed) | Non-constitutive Gene |
| Two Main Stages of Gene Expression: | Transcription and Translation. |
| synthesis of mRNA from DNA | Transcription |
| mRNA to protein | Translation |
| "above" "on top of" genetics. external modifications to DNA that turn genes "on" "off." modifications do not change the DNA sequence, but it affect how cells "read" genes. changes can be influenced by environmental factors lifestyle external stimuli. | epigenetics |
| Three Epigenetic Mechanism | -DNA Methylation -Histone Remodeling/ Modification -RNA Editing or Non-coding RNA |
| is a commonly used epigenetic signaling tool that can fix genes in the "off" position. - DNA methylation is an epigenetic mechanism used by cells to control gene expression. - It works by adding a chemical group to the DNA. | -DNA Methylation |
| When epigenetic factors attach to the "tails" of histones (proteins that DNA wraps around), it changes how tightly the DNA is wrapped around the histones. This affects how easily genes in the DNA can be turned on or off. | Histone Remodeling/ Modification |
| Some epigenetic effects regulate gene expression by acting on messenger RNA rather than genes. works by recruiting proteins to modify histones to turn “on” and “off”. | RNA Editing or Non-coding RNA - |
| is a subfield of epigenetics that examines the transmission of experiences via epigenetic mechanisms across generations. | Transgenerational Epigenetics |
| Effect of genes cannot be separated to experiences | Development of Individuals |
| Genes and experiences can be separated | Development of Differences among individuals |
| Study individuals with known genetic similarities | Behavioral Geneticist |
| Happens several days after hatching. The birds cannot acquire songs from different species during this phase It is genetically acquired or prepared to learn the birdsong of their own species. | Sensory Phase |
| begins when the juvenile males begin to twitter subsong. during this phase ,the rambling vocalizations of subsongs are gradually refined until they resemble the songs when it comes to retention of their initial crystalized adult song there 2common ptrns | sensorimotor phase |
| once crystalized,remain unchanged | Age limited learners |
| - they are able to add new songs to their repertoire - Neural circuit that controls bird song, it has 3 major components | Open-ended learners |
| descends from the high vocal center on each side of the brain to the syrinx, on the same side it mediates song production | Descending motor pathway |
| mediates song learning | Anterior forebrain pathway |
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mmae0823