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Unit 4 AP Psych Voca
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| associative learning - | learning that certain events occur together |
| classical conditioning - | a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or responde |
| learning - | relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience |
| behaviorism - | the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). |
| unconditioned response - | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) |
| unconditioned stimulus - | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically triggers a response |
| conditioned response - | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) |
| conditioned stimulus - | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| acquisition - | The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. |
| extinction - | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. |
| spontaneous recovery - | the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response |
| generalization - | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
| discrimination - | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
| associative learning - | learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). |
| operant conditioning - | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
| respondent behavior - | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning. |
| operant behavior - | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. |
| law of effect - | Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
| operant chamber - | a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research. (My |
| learning - | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience |
| shaping - | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
| reinforcer - | in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
| positive reinforcement - | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 329) |
| negative reinforcement - | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.) (Myers Psychology 8e p. 32 |
| primary reinforcer - | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
| conditioned reinforcer - | A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer. |
| continuous reinforcement - | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
| partial reinforcement - | reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
| fixed ratio schedule - | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. |
| variable ratio schedule - | in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforment that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
| fixed interval schedule - | In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
| variable interval schedule - | in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredicatble time intervals |
| punishment - | An event that decreases the behavior that it follows. |
| cognitive map - | a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. |
| latent learning - | Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. |
| intrinsic motivation - | a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake |
| extrinsic motivation - | a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment |
| learning - | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience |
| observational learning - | learning by observing others |
| modeling - | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
| mirror neurons - | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. |
| prosocial behavior - | positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. |
| memory - | the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
| flashbulb memory - | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 351) |
| encoding - | the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning |
| storage - | the retention of encoded information over time |
| retrieval - | the process of getting information out of memory storage |
| sensory memory - | the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system |
| short-term memory - | activated memory that holds a few items briefly |
| long-term memory - | relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system |
| working memory - | a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory |
| automatic processing - | unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings |
| effortful processing - | Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
| rehearsal - | The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage |
| spacing effect - | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice |
| serial position effect - | our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list |
| visual encoding - | the encoding of picture images |
| acoustic encoding - | The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words. |
| semantic encoding - | the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words |
| imagery - | mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding |
| mnemonics - | memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| chunking - | organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically |
| iconic memory - | a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
| echoic memory - | a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
| long term potentiation - | an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory |
| amnesia - | loss of memory |
| implicit memory - | retention independent of conscious recollection |
| explicit memory - | memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" |
| hippocampus - | a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage |
| recall - | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. |
| recognition - | a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. |
| relearning - | a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time |
| priming - | the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory |
| deja vu - | that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. |
| mood-congruent memory - | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
| proactive interference - | the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information |
| retroactive interference - | the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information |
| repression - | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness |
| misinformation effect - | Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. |
| source amnesia - | attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined |
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