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Peds 2 Final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Which of the following interventions would support enhancing a client’s wrist stability? | Writing on a vertical surface |
| Your client is a 6 year old and attends first grade. He has difficulty writing legibly due to visual perceptual and visual motor issues. Which of the strategies below would you use with him to assist with remediation of handwriting? | Handwriting without Tears |
| According to the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education's (DESE) categories of disabilities, under which of the disability categories outlined in the on ground lecture would ADHD be included? | Health |
| What is the first step when evaluating a child’s handwriting? | Gathering data on a child’s writing compared with classroom standards |
| Which domain of handwriting is considered the most complex? | Composition |
| Which suggestion reflects how a therapist might prepare a student, who has low postural tone, for handwriting in the classroom? | Suggest the child place hands on side of a chair and do a push-up. |
| As identified by the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education (DESE) and reviewed in on ground lecture, which education-related diagnosis would a school-based OTR most often have on her caseload? | Specific learning disability |
| In school-age children receiving special education services, which is the most common type of learning disability? | Dyslexia |
| If the OTR observes an 8 y.o child exhibiting intact finger tapping ability (fine motor coordination), age appropriate drawing ability (visual motor coordination) and poor spelling ability. What does the OTR recommend to assist this student? | Direct OT services not recommended, refer for SLP evaluation and treatment due to possible Dyslexic dysgraphia |
| The school-based OTR is consulting with the 5th grade teachers about some compensatory strategies that are also UD ideas to optimize in-class attention for their students who are identified with ADD. What would some possibilities be? | Alternate work positions, Alternate assignments, Movement breaks |
| When completing a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA), the team of school personnel work together to identify all of the following EXCEPT: | The child’s speech and language skills |
| Joseph is a 5 y.o diagnosed with ASD who demonstrates difficulty sharing toys with other children in his class via temper tantrums. What strategy would best reduce Joseph's challenging behavior when developing a Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP)? | Reading social stories and watching videos (video modeling) about sharing toys |
| The IEP team, including 15 year old Johnny identified with a developmental disability, writes a Transition Plan during his annual IEP meeting. This plan will be part of this year's IEP and includes which of the following: | Transition programming to prepare him for his adult, after school life |
| Mark is in the 3rd grade. He does not want to go to any birthday parties and is beginning to want to stay away from school. He says he gets so nervous going to other children’s homes to play that it is not fun anymore. What type of anxiety is this called? | Social anxiety |
| Analyzing the antecedents helps to better understand the "why" of the behavior. Once the behavior is better understood, which approach to managing negative behaviors is identified as the LEAST effective: | Punishment |
| Occupational therapists should help educate others about the possible purpose(s) of a child's poor or maladaptive behaviors may be due to: | Seeking something, Avoiding something, Child not feeling well, Sensory over sensitivity |
| Which childhood disorder is 4 to 5 times more likely to be identified as having a comorbid mental health condition than children who are typically developing due to an interaction of biologic (genetics), environmental, medical and psychosocial conditions? | Intellectual disabilities |
| Special education legislation requires a Discharge Plan to be written and included as part of the student's IEP when which of the following occur? | Goals for one of the identified need areas (OT, SLP, etc.) are achieved |
| When treating a 15 yo student diagnosed w/ Conduct Disorder, the OT is utilizing the Cognitive/MOHO FOR to improve success enacting his occupational roles of student, friend and family member. Which assessment tool(s) would be most appropriate? | Student Interest Inventory |
| The type of eating disroder which involves repeatedly regurgitating food by frequently rechewing, reswallowing or spitting out food is one of the common eating disorders in children with developmental disorders, is called: | Rumination |
| Nina is a 10-year-old girl diagnosed with severe anxiety disorder, interfering with her ability to learn. Which law would provide her the right to accommodations in a public school? | Americans with Disability Act, Section 504 |
| A parent requests that the occupational therapist working in the school system complete the range of motion exercises daily with her son. What is the key reason that the occupational therapist would comply with this request? | Educational relevance |
| Mark is a 5th grade student who has learning difficulties. While they want to place him in a regular classroom, they are not sure that he will be able to keep up with the requirements. What must the team consider to make this placement? | Least restrictive environment |
| Which is the first federal U.S. law enacted and what is the date for passage of this law which mandated a free and appropriate education in the leat restrictive environment for all children? | 1975, Education for all Handicapped Children Act (EHA) |
| What is NOT true about the difference between tilt and recline? | Tilt provides pressure relief, but recline does not. |
| Carlos is a 7 year old boy with spastic diplegia, GMGCS level III (walks with a hand-held mobility device). His parents would like him to be more active, and Carlos loves to spend time outside. What would be a good mobility device to consider? | An adapted tricycle |
| Nadim is a 5 yo boy with spastic quadriplegia, GMFCS level V. Nadim’s mother reports that he is sliding out of the reclining bath chair that was given to him when he was an infant. What is(are) the most important feature(s) to include in a new bath chair? | A bath chair that provides tilt-in-space positioning. |
| Jose is now in the 5th grade and will be entering middle school next year. The team has agreed that direct OT services are no longer indicated for Joes to make effective academic progress. Which documentation form does the OTR complete to add to his IEP? | Discharge Summary |
| Which statement best reflects the OT’s approach to evaluating mobility & positioning? | Evaluate the child and caregivers’ needs and wants, the context of their daily occupations, and the limitations of the child’s experiences. |
| Maria has been identified with speech and language delays as well as fine motor/visual motor motor delays due to a spinal tumor removal. Maria is eligible to receive integrated preschool programming and free support services b/c which federal legislation? | PL 99-457: The Education for All Handicapped Amendment (1986)- Part B |
| Which of the following is an alerting sensory activity? | Eating Sour candy |
| According to Ayres's theory and frame of reference, sensory integration, which is the best example of an “adaptive response?” | Ability to hold on and pump a swing longer and higher |
| Max is a 12-month-old boy who is just learning to walk. He stands for short periods, sees his favorite toy, and takes one step and falls. The therapist places the favorite toy two steps away the next time. Which term describes this concept? | Just-right challenge |
| Charlie is a 10-year-old boy who will eat only mashed foods, does not like noises, and has difficulty sitting during meals. He also does not like new clothes and cannot wear jeans. What type of sensory integrative problem does Charlie have? | Sensory modulation problems |
| Ramon is a 12-year-old boy who will not play on the swings or slides at school. He has difficulty climbing up the second-floor staircase at school and cannot sit at the top of the bleachers. What type of problem does this depict? | Gravitational insecurity |
| The occupational therapist, Jose, wants to use Ayres Sensory Integration intervention to work with 9-year-old Jason. He has one swing and a small room in which to treat Jason. Which statement best reflects how Jose can make this setting work? | The room should have a variety of suspended equipment, materials, and mats for safety. |
| Although children with any of a variety of diagnoses may experience sensory integrative dysfunction, the most common diagnoses of children experiencing problems in sensory integration include: | Learning disability; Autism spectrum disorder |
| Which would be the best way for an OTR to assess soft neurological signs in a 7 year old second grade student suspected of having a specific learning disability (SLD)? | Clinical Observations (either informal or standardized) |
| Examination of “soft neurological signs” are thought to reflect either | Neuro maturational delay and/or abnormality of the nervous system. (Presence of soft neurological signs at school age is a strong predictor of academic and/or behavior problems in teens and adults) |
| Self regulation is the ability to move smoothly between these two states: | Hyper aroused and hypo aroused |
| Which evidence-based program can be used to help a teenager with ADHD learn strategies for self-regulation in order to help them deal with stressors effectively to come back to a calm and alert state. | Zones of Regulation |
| A full term, typically developing newborn is born with a number of responses which support survival and bonding to their caretaker. Which of the following responses are expected to be present at birth and are important for survival and bonding? | Intact cough & gag reflex, Rooting reflex, Suck reflex |
| In relation to an OT evaluation of oral motor skills, which of the terms below described this definition: "a complex act in which food, fluid, medication, or saliva is moved from the mouth through the pharynx and the esophagus and into the stomach." | Swallowing |
| Three year old Tony is diagnosed with Down Syndrome and has weak oral pharyngeal musculature as a result of his abnormal tone. When Tony is eating, he tends to be a "messy eater" because he frequently loses food from his mouth. What might this be due to? | Poor lip closure or jaw instability |
| Which pattern of behaviors reflects oral hypersensitivity? | Gags frequently, limited variety of feeds, refuses tooth brushing |
| Which sequence best describes the progression of food texture from easiest to most difficult? (normal progression from infant to toddler) | Liquid, pureed, soft foods such as crackers, table foods |
| Which intervention activity would be recommended for a child with poor oral sensory awareness? | Provide foods with strong flavors and cold temperatures. |
| Byron is an 11-month-old child who is not feeding himself with his hands. He drinks from a bottle but does not actively hold the bottle. Byron gags when a cracker or cookie is introduced. Which statement best reflects the interpretation of these findings? | Byron is delayed in his eating/oral-motor skills and self-feeding skills. |
| What is the most important intervention strategy when working on feeding and eating skills with children who present with either hypertonicity or hypotonicity? | Positioning |
| What is/are the diagnosis/es which would likely impact a child's feeding/eating ability? | Hypotonicity, Hypertonicity, Dysphagia, Sensory reactivity |
| The article published by Zobel-Lachiusa and colleagues, 2015, identified differences in sensory processing and in mealtime behaviors between children with ASD and TD children. What did their study results reveal? | Results indicated a strong to moderate positive correlation on measures of eating behaviors and sensory processing. |
| A 10 yo student who demonstrates very poor and illegible handwriting, you have recommended OT to provide in-class strategies and supports to improve handwriting legibility. Which low tech device(s) could help this student produce written work effectively? | Pencil grip, slanted writing surface and adapted paper |
| The school-based OTR is working with a 12 yo who is diagnosed with Down syndrome and mild ID. He is struggling with independent reading of the 6th grade social studies text. The OT suggests which of the following AT devices to support his reading? | Digitized books |
| As demonstrated during A.T. lab, which device can be utilized to convert a toy into a switch adapted toy? | Battery interrupter |
| As stated in chapter 19 of the O'Brien & Kuhaneck text and on-ground lecture, the legal mandates pertaining to assitive technology include all of the following except? | Medicaid |
| According to the on-ground lecture about assistive technology, what does IDEA require of IEP teams in regards to AT? | The need for assitive technology should be considered by the IEP team |
| Chapter 19 of the O'Brien & Kuhaneck text describes the reasoning process of an OT conducting an AT evaluation for a child to include: | Observation in the child's natural environment, The environmental demands including the child's motor abilities and needs, The child's current technology and its effectiveness |
| What is the term for "making products, communications, and the built environment more usable by as many people as possible at little or no extra cost"? | Universal design |
| The OT Practice article identifies the biggest hurdles incorporating computer technology into school-based therapy are: | Training and funding |
| As stated in chapter 19 of the O'Brien & Kuhaneck text, one-third or more of individuals discontinue use of their AT device. What is the primary reason for abandonment of the AT device? | Failure to consider the user's preferences, ideas and desires |
| What are the neurodevelopmental disorders in the DSM-5? | Intellectual disabilities, ASD, ADD/ADHD, Specific learning disorders, Tic disorders |
| What are the 4 diagnostic criteria for a specific learning disorder? | Persistent difficulties learning academic skills, academic skills below average age, apparent in early school years, not attributable to an ID (IQ>70) |
| What is the definition for a specific learning disorder? | Difficulties in learning and using academic skills, as indicated by the presence of at least one of the following symptoms that have persisted for at least 6 months, despite the provision of interventions that target those difficulties |
| What is the most common learning disability that OTs are involved with? | Dysgraphia. OT usually not involved with Dyslexia or Dyscalculia (SLP or special ed) |
| What are considered neurological soft signs of a CNS disorder? | Clumsy gait; poor finger control; difficulties in FM skills, including speed and accuracy, reflexes |
| How would an OT asses a child with motor dysgraphia? | By looking at motor coordination |
| How would an OT asses achild with spatial dysgraphia? | By copying shapes |
| How would an OT asses a child with dyslexic dysgraphia? | Mixing up letter shapes and words |
| What is the diagnostic criteria for ADD? | Must have 6 of 9 symptoms in either or both Inattention or 2. Hyperactivity/Impulsivity clusters, Symptoms evident before age 12 (controversial), Persisted at least 6 mos, Occur across multiple settings. Cannot be accounted by another disorder |
| What is the most common comorbid diagnosis with children? | SLD and ADHD |
| What is an important aspect of the Mat Man activity as part of handwriting without tears? | It helps for spatial relations |
| A child who presents with shoulder hiking during writing tasks may have an issue with | Shoulder stability |
| A child who presents with wrist flexion during FM tasks may have an issue with | Wrist stability |
| A child who cannot rotate pencil in one hand to use the eraser may have an issue with | Precision rotation |
| A child who does not use small finger movements when writing/uses entire arm may have an issue with | Translation |
| A child who opens and closes all their fingers while cutting may have an issue with | Motoric separation of the sides of the hand |
| A child who has a problem recalling shape/form of letter/numbers, needs models, has poor legibility, spelling errors, or presents the same letters written differently may have an issue with | Visual memory |
| A child who can see part of an item but still doesnt know what it is may have an issue with | Visual closure |
| A child who has issues percieving shapes, size & form of letters/# and does not readily recognize errors may have an issue with | Visual discrimination |
| A child who has a problem with poor spacing on paper or difficulty lining up math problems may have an issue with | Spatial organization |
| Rumination is defined as | repeated regurgitation of food over at least 1 mo. |
| Enueresis is defined as | repeated voiding of urine (day or night) |
| Encopresis is defined as | Repeated passage of feces in inappropriate places +/or constipation |
| Trichtilomania is defined as | A hair pulling disorder |
| What assessment is used to form a behavior intervention plan for children with behavioral issues? | A Functional Behavioral Analysis (FBA) as part of an IEP. May include Positive Behavioral Supports (PBS) |
| Your child with Oppositional Defiant Disorder gets an extra 10 minutes of recess every day he gets a gold sticker for behavior from his teacher as part of his BIP. This technique is known as | Discrete trial training: Get child to perform task and then reward correct behavior with social or edible prize |
| When does transition planning begin for a child with an IEP? | When the child is age 14-16 |
| A child with an IEP has their IEP reviewed how often? | Yearly |
| A child with an IEP must have their IEP re-eval how often? | Every 3 years |
| Part B of the EHA act provided what? | Pre school services (age 3-5). Expanded to provide special education and related services to preschool children with disabilities. |
| Part H of the EHA act provided what? | Early intervention services(ages birth through 3): States were given “seed” money to develop new comprehensive, interagency programs for infants and toddlers (Early Intervention- EI) |
| What is a tier 1 intervention for early intervention services? | Whole school/class involved in the program (anti bullying assembly, posters etc), Handwriting without tears for whole class |
| What is a tier 2 intervention for early intervention services? | In a small group (2-3 kids given more explicit instruction) |
| What is a tier 3 intervention for early intervention services? | Individual instructions, if not responding well then they are referred for special ed. |
| Your child walks and plays on the playground without the need for AE. This child would be classified as what on the GMFCS scale? | Level 1: walks without limitations |
| Your child wears an AFO but otherwise does not need any mobility supports. This child would be classified as what on the GMFCS scale? | Level 2: walks with limitations |
| Your child with spastic diplegia CP uses a wheeled walker to ambulate. They would be considered what on the GMFCS scale? | Level 3: walks using a hand-held mobility device |
| Your child with quadraplegia CP uses a powered wheelchair. They would be considered what level on the GMFCS? | Level 4: self-mobility with limitations, may use a powered mobility device |
| Your child with CP has a caregiver 24/7 that pushes their W/C for them. They would be what level on the GMFCS scale? | Level 5: transported in a manual W/C |
| The difference between a tilt in space vs a recliner is | A tilt in space keeps the hip angle the same throughout while a recliner changes the hip angle. This also cause sheering forces so a child in a recliner will need to be adjusted when reclined |
| Insurance will cover seating or mobility devices every __ | Every 5 years |
| What are the 4 areas where sensory problems may occur? | Sensory reactivity (sensory modulation, issues with hypo/hypersensitivity), Sensory discrimination and perception, Vestibular-bilateral functions, Praxis |
| A child who does not like slimey textures or refuses to wear clothes with tags on them may be exhibiting | Tactile defensiveness |
| A child who is terrified of walking on uneven surfaces or avoids movement and playground activites such as swinging may be exhibiting | Gravitational insecurity: hyper-reactivity to vestibular sensations (movement through space) |
| A child who may not notice when they bump into people or objects may have a problem with | Sensory registration: Hypo-reactivity (does not notice sensory information) can be a safety issue |
| Your child displays problems with visual perception skills, development of fine motor skills, and difficulty interpreting tactile stimuli. They likely have an issue with | Sensory discrimination specifically tactile discrimination and perception problems |
| Your child displays as often clumsy or awkward, seeks firm pressure, jumping, or walking forcefully, and has inaccuracte perception or lack of awareness of body position. They likely have an issue with | Sensory discrimination specifically proprioception problems |
| Your child displays issues with postural control, balance, equilibrium response, B coordination, and sequencing actions in time and space. They likely have an issue with | Vestibular-bilateral problems (vestibular-proprioceptive processing is involved) |
| You have a child on your case load that has dyspraxia which causes them to have issues participating with their peers on the playground. What would be a good intervention to use with this child? | Creating an obstacle course |
| What is the difference between dyspraxia and praxis/apraxia? | Dyspraxia means the motor planning abilities were never developed due to some issue, praxis/apraxia is a loss of motor planning due to an event such as a stroke or TBI |
| What are performance based assesements used to examine SI in children? | Sensory integration and praxis test (SIPT), Evaluation of Ayres sensory integration (EASI), Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency (BOT), GOAL |
| What is a standardized testing questionnaire used to examine sensory integration? | Sensory profile (SP) or the Sensory processing measure (SPM) |
| What is the Goal Attainment Scale (GAS) and what population is it used for? | Proveds framework for objective measurement of goals (scale of 5 from -2 to +2 where 0 equals expected goal met). Useful for measuring goals for children with SI issues |
| When is it not appropriate to use standardized clinical observations such as the COMPS or QNST? | If the child has a known neurological impairment such as moderate to sever CP, seizure disorder, or TBI |
| What areas are assessed using clinical observations? | Behavior (attention, follow directions, attitude, etc.) Clinical signs (posture, grasp, hand dominance, muscle tone, eye tracking, reflexes, etc.) |
| Are the COMPS and QNST standardized or non standardized assessments? | Standardized. With the COMPS high score is good, low score is bad, with the QNST low score is good, high score is bad |
| What is the definition of feeding? | The process of setting up, arranging and bringing food to the mouth |
| What is the definition of eating? | The ability to keep and manipulate food or fluid in the mouth and swallow it |
| What is the definition of swallowing? | The ability to move food and liquid from the mouth to the pharynx and the esophagus and into the stomach |
| At what age should a child be double their birth weight? | 6 months (usually around 16lbs) |
| What does FTT stand for? | Failure to thrive, for children with below average (5% or less) weight and height (measured at 3, 6, and 12 mo) |
| What are the reflexes present at birth that are required to support eating? | Sucking, Rooting, Gag reflexes |
| What feature do premature babies not have that creates a hazard with feeding causing them to have to be NG tube fed? | They do not have fatty cheek pads which are required to create suction in order to feed |
| What is the progression of tongue movement in order to begin to eat more complex foods? | Flexion (0-6mo), extension (6mo-2years), Lateral rotation (2+) |
| A newborn baby 0-3 mo can eat what kinds of food? | Liquid (sucking) |
| A baby that is 4-6mo old can eat what types of food? | Pureed (flexion/chewing) |
| A baby that is 6-8 mo can eat what types of food? | Coarse pureed |
| What is the most important thing OTs look at in relation to feeding? | Positioning (what happens at the hips affects the lips) |
| A child that has an inability to plan and imitate large body movements and meaningless postures may have | Postural dyspraxia |
| A child that has difficulty making transitions from one motor action to another and sequencing movements may have | Sequencing dyspraxia |
| A child that has an inability to produce oral movements on verbal command or in imitation may hace | Oral and verbal dyspraxia |
| A child that has an inability to create and assemble 3-dimensional structures may have | Constructional dyspraxia |
| A child that has an inability to plan and execute drawings may have | Graphic dyspraxia |
| A child that has an inability to plan, imitate and execute novel finger movements may have | Finger dyspraxia |
| What is NOT a diagnostic criterion for dyspraxia? | Cognition, diagnosis is made only when motor skills are lower than would be expected (if individual has cog impairment not appropriate to test/diagnose) |
| When do children with dyspraxia usually get diagnosed/deficits are first recognized? | When they enter elementary school |
| What is micrognathia? | Small, receded lower jaw, Mouth and tongue may be normal size |
| What is a common intervention for children with hypertonicity with feeding issues? | Spoon placement (downward pressure of spoon in center of tongue facilitates sucking response), and preparation/jaw control (deep/firm pressure using downward stroking motion around cheeks & lips) |
| What are common interventions for children with hypotonicity with feeding issues? | Preparatory activities (biting, chewing, vibration), tapping, quick stretch of cheeks or lips |
| What is the main precaution to keep in mind when working with a child with tonic bite (hypertonic) on feeding? | Do not put fingers in/near mouth and use caution with what material/types of utensils you use. Can bite finger or break teeth on utensils |
| A child with hypotonicity may have what issues with feeding if their neck is too flexed? | Trouble swallowing |
| A child with hypotonicity may have what issues with feeding if their neck is hyperextended? | Aspiration risk |
| What position should be avoided when working with a child on feeding? | Do not position nose towards ceiling or in supine. Side lying is ok and encouraged but assume same position as breast feeding posture |
| Consideration of AT is mandated by what federal law? | IDEA (1997) and state law for IEP (2000) |
| What are the foundational skills that impact written expression? | Sensory, Neuromuscular, Social/emotional, Cognitive |
| Low tech interventions for children include | Writing tools, paper options, paper positioners, seat options, electronic aids |
| No tech interventions for children include | Different assignments/time to complete assignments, Positioning (seat placement, alternate work positions), Classroom accommodations (hard copy assignments, peer support, highlighting/spacers/start dots, attention enhancers) |
| High tech interventions for children include | Adapted keyboards, talk to text, spell check, word processors, graphic organizers, digital AAC |
| What are the 7 categories of AT? | Positioning, Mobility, Communication, Computer access, Toys and games, Activities of daily living, Instructional aids |
| What is the PDMS? | Peabody developmental motor scales, used for ages birth to 5, assess gross & fine motor development, Is criterion/performance referenced (measures performance of specific task) |
| What is the Beery VMI? | Assessment tool for visual motor integration for ages 2-100, is a norm referenced assessment (measures performance in relation to average performance of age equivalent children) |
| What is the DTVP? | Developmental test of visual perception skills, used for children age 4-10, norm referenced score |
| When working with a child with hemiparesis on dressing, in what order do they dress/undress their heimparetic limb? | First in, last out |
| What is the benefit of using a cut out cup with a child with swallowing issues? | Allows them to use the chin tuck technique while drinking |
| What was the major change with the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA, 2014)? | People cant work in shelter workshops, need to be in the community, Medicaid will no longer cover if they are in workshops |
| Who is the most crucial member of the transition team in transition services? | The child/student |
| What is the name of the team that plans transition services? | IEP team, must meet 1nce a year |
| At what age are children included in the transition planning of their IEP? | 14 (may differ in some states but is 14-16 usually) |
| What is the best type of training for transition planning? | Hands on real world experience is shown to be more effective than simulations |
| What are recommended transition practices for OT? | Early, paid work experience, Student involvement in transition planning, Emphasis on student’s social competence, Development of life skills, Use of assistive technology, Collaborative, interdisciplinary, and interagency teamwork |
| A child that doodles in class or grabs a pencil that isnt theirs may display issues with | Communication, possibly means they are bored or tired |
| A child that calls out or interrupts others may display issues with | Attention, possibly trying to be noticed, praised, or seek help |
| A child that disrupts the class may display issues with | Avoidance, possibly disrupting because they fear they cant succeed so they distract from the task |
| A child that argues or refuses to follow directions may display issues with | Power, trying to prove you cant make them do something or they want to decide what to do on their own |
| A child that teases a peer or chats with peers in class may display issues with | Fun, is trying to play or have fun |
| What is the Print Tool Assessment? | Looks at handwriting, part of handwriting without tears program, for kids 6-8 but can be older if appropriate, not standardized |
| What sensory system is related to attention that can commonly be an issue for kids displaying poor classroom behavior? | Vestibular system |
| What 3 systems often contribute to issues with feeding? | Neuromuscular, structural, sensory |
| Validity is defined as | How well the results among the study participants represent true findings among similar individuals outside the study |
| Reliability is defined as | Whether research methods can reproduce the same results multiple times |
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