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PSYC33A Exam 3
Units 9-12
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| IQ calculation relies on the fact that intelligence scores fall into what type of distribution? | normal |
| Eric has an IQ of 100 at age 5 and an IQ of 100 at age 22. What can be said about his intelligence in comparison to others his age? | Eric's comparative intelligence has remained stable. |
| With age, adopted children's IQ scores and the IQ scores of their biological parents become _____ correlated because of _____ gene–environment correlations. | more; active |
| True or false: Education increases specific cognitive skills measured on IQ tests. | True |
| Heritability of IQ scores within populations is around 70%. What does this tell us about heritability of differences in IQ scores between populations? | Absolutely nothing |
| _____ is NOT a pre-reading skill. | Phonological recoding |
| _____ is involved in phonological recoding skills. | sounding out |
| Proceeding directly from the visual form of a word to its meaning is referred to as | visually based retrieval |
| To be very successful at comprehending what they are reading, children do NOT need to be able to | process multiple intelligences |
| Children with dyslexia have problems with reading due primarily to weakness in | phonological processing |
| Which skill makes learning to write particularly difficult? | meeting both low-level and high-level goals |
| When asked what 3 + 2 equals, Hillary puts up three fingers of one hand and two fingers on the other hand and counts "1, 2, 3, 4, 5." Hillary has used which arithmetic strategy? | counting from 1 |
| True or false: Direct instruction in the accuracy of numerical magnitude representations has little effect on arithmetic proficiency. | False |
| Which factor is NOT a contributor to mathematics disability? | damage to the amygdala |
| Which problem is a young child most likely to use the strategy of counting up from one to solve? | 13+2 |
| Kindergarteners _________ the difference between smaller numbers, whereas by second grade their number lines are more______________. | overestimate; linear |
| When the child in the video said he wasn't sure why twenty was written as 2 and 0, it showed he hadn't fully grasped | the link between number symbols and magnitudes |
| Phonemic awareness | to understand that speech is composed of sound units |
| Letter recognition | the ability to associate letters with appropriate sounds |
| Awareness of print | The understanding of print and word conventions |
| Early writing development | attempts to produce written text (scribbling, letters) |
| Oral development | vocabulary, discourse, and narrative |
| Phonological recoding | the ability to translate letters into sounds and to blend the sounds into words or “sounding out” |
| Visually based retrieval | processing a word’s meaning directly from the visual form |
| orthographic depth | degree to which written language deviates from 1:1 letter: phoneme mapping Shallower = easier to learn |
| Phonemic (shallow) orthographics | regular mapping, eg. Spanish |
| Non-phonemic (deep) orthographics | irregular mappings, eg. English |
| Logographic | Non-alphabetic, eg. Chinese characters |
| Automatization of decoding | frees up cognitive resources for comprehension |
| Content knowledge | frees cognitive resources for focusing on what is new or complex in the text; allows readers to draw inferences about the unstated information |
| Comprehension monitoring | process of keeping track of one’s understanding; reading slowly when material is hard to comprehend; speeding up when the material is easier to understand |
| Potential stumbling blocks to becoming a good reader: | Difficulty learning to read words accurately & fluently Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, & reasoning skills to support comprehension of written language Absence or loss of initial motivation to read |
| Dyslexia | reading problems in the absence of low verbal IQ, cultural differences, reduced opportunities to learn, visual or auditory problems, or emotional disturbance |
| Low-level goals | forming letters, spelling words, and using correct punctuation |
| High-level goals | making arguments, organizing separate ideas into a coherent framework, and providing background information that readers need |
| Numerical magnitude representations | mental models of the sizes of numbers, ordered along a less-to-more dimension |
| g (general intelligence) | cognitive processes that influence the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks |
| fluid intelligence | ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems |
| crystallized intelligence | factual knowledge about the world |
| Primary mental abilities | seven abilities proposed by Thurstone as crucial to intelligence |
| Three-stratum theory of intelligence | Carroll’s model that places g at the top of the intelligence hierarchy, eight moderately general abilities in the middle, and many specific processes at the bottom |
| Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) | widely used test designed to measure the intelligence of children 6 years and older |
| IQ (intelligence quotient) | quantitative measure, typically with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, used to indicate a child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age |
| Normal distribution | pattern of data in which scores fall symmetrically around a mean value, with most scores falling close to the mean and fewer and fewer scores farther from it |
| Standard deviation (SD) | measure of the variability of scores in a distribution; in a normal distribution, 68% of scores fall within 1 SD of the mean, and 95% of scores fall within 2 SDs of the mean |
| Self-discipline | ability to inhibit actions, follow rules, and avoid impulsive reactions |
| Carolina Abecedarian Project | comprehensive and successful enrichment program for children from low-income families |
| Flynn Effect | consistent rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the past 80 years in many countries |
| Multiple intelligences theory | Gardner’s theory of intellect, based on the view that people possess at least eight types of intelligence |
| Strategy-choice processes | procedure for selecting among alternative ways to solve a problem |
| Mental model | cognitive processes used to represent a situation or sequence of events |
| Script | typical sequence of actions used to organize and interpret repeated events, such as eating at restaurants, going to doctor’s appointments, and writing reports |
| Mathematical equality | concept that the values on each side of the equal sign must be equivalent |
| Gesture-speech mismatches | phenomenon in which hand movements and verbal statements coney different ideas |
| Theory of successful intelligence | Sternberg’s theory of intellect, based on the view that intelligence is the ability to achieve success in life |
| Working memory is limited in | capacity and duration |
| Clara is taking a test and is asked to "repeat the following numbers in order." Which does this question assess? | working memory |
| In his famous "marshmallow test," Walter Mischel measured children's ability to do what? | delay gratification |
| What would you need good inhibitory control for? | Not automatically grabbing a cookie when your goal is to have a healthy snack |
| Maya has a hard time with transitions. When the teacher says it's time to put away the worksheets and take out their math books, Maya keeps working on her worksheet. She is most likely having trouble with what aspect of EF? | flexibility |
| What is NOT part of the fronto-parietal control network? | hippocampus |
| Adolescents tend to make risky decions especially when ____________, because their _______________ is less developed then their ___________. | with peers; prefrontal cortex; limbic areas |
| Executive functions | Cognitive control functions that allow self regulation and self-directed behavior toward goals |
| Attentional control | ability to sustain attention and select the focus of attention |
| Working memory | Holding information temporarily ‘on line’ across delays of a few seconds and distractions |
| Inhibitory control | the ability to resist a strong inclination to do one thing, and instead do what is most appropriate or needed |
| Cognitive flexibility/shifting | ability to easily switch from one task or mental representation to another and respond flexibly as the environment changes |
| At what age would Max in the video be able to switch to the new rule in the card sorting task he was doing? | 3.5 years |
| Kim is 4 years old. Her mother tells her to go get her coat, hat and mittens from the next room. What is she most likely to do? | Not think about the items she is supposed to get until she arrives in the room, then try to recall them using reactive control. |
| Andre is 14- What aspect of EF is he most likely to still have problems with? | self-directed control |
| What does research on training with EF "brain games" show? | Performance improves on the trained tasks, but doesn't generalize to real-world functioning after accounting for placebo effects. |
| What is a compensatory strategy that might help someone with poor EF function better? | Using a timer to signal when to transition between tasks |
| The behavior modification strategy of "time-outs" is based on the idea that _____ is a positive reinforcement. | attention |
| The parents of 2-year-old Joshua are frustrated with his screaming when he wants something. According to the behaviorists, what would be the BEST advice to give Joshua's parents if they wish to stop Joshua's screaming? | Never give Joshua what he wants when he screams. |
| _____ is an example of the way in which children play an active role in their own development. | Reciprocal determinism |
| Observing someone else receive a reward or punishment is called _____, according to Albert Bandura. | vicarious reinforcement |
| Bandura's Bobo doll studies did NOT demonstrate that | reinforcement is necessary for learning. |
| The family is part of which level of the bioecological model? | the microsystem |
| _____ is part of the mesosystem. | Parents' contact with a child's soccer coach |
| ____ is part of the exosystem. | A father's job as a truck driver |
| _____ is part of the macrosystem. | The societal belief that men should hold certain types of jobs |
| According to Selman, in middle-childhood children | believe that others' different perspectives stem from possession of different knowledge. |
| While Alex is swinging on the school playground's monkey bars, he kicks Michael on the shoulder. If Michael has a hostile attributional bias, he will believe | Alex kicked him intentionally |
| Susan is at the park and sees Derek drop his ice cream cone. She notices that Derek has a sad expression, and this causes her to feel sad as well. Susan is feeling | affective empathy |
| Bryan is at the park looking for his lost dog. He stops his friend Michelle and tells her what happened. Michelle tells Bryan that she knows he most be feeling sad and worried. Michelle is showing | cognitive empathy |
| Which example illustrates a person using a display rule? | Anna is disgusted by the taste of the soup her friend has offered her, but to be polite, she smiles and says, "Thank you." |
| B, an 11-month-old, is playing on the floor - his older bro steers a toy car (B has never seen) toward B. B looks up at his dad, who is on the verge of yelling, "Stop, it's going to hit B!" B then breaks into quickly flowing tears. B has engaged in | social referencing |
| Tomasello's research on cooperation showed that that two year olds | will eagerly engage in reciprocal cooperation with adults during play |
| What is an example of a parent's indirect socialization of generosity? | Kim's mom often makes food for a neighborhood mother whose husband is ill. |
| Parents who are high in warmth and high in control are considered to exhibit which parenting style? | authoritative |
| 8yr old T doesn't want to do her homework & instead watches TV. Her parents think she can make her own decisions & don't get involved. They are affectionate in other situations, but do little to regulate her behavior. They would likely be classified as | permissive |
| Bryson and Carl are playing with their toy trucks side-by-side but are not engaging with each other. They are engaged in _____ play. | parallel |
| R says, "My best friend is A. We do everything together.We always play together @ recess. A lives near me, & she has so many fun toys that I love to play with." This description of R's friendship is MOST characteristic of children of what age? | elementary school aged child |
| Compared with average children, popular children tend NOT to be | less likely to exhibit relational aggression. |
| Children in G's class are asked to name who they like the most and who they like the least. Many of G's classmates list him as one of the children they like the least, and few list him as one of the children they like the most. G would be classified as | rejected |
| Differential reinforcement | reinforcing desired behaviors while simultaneously withholding reinforcement in presence of undesired behaviors Beware accidental reinforcement of bad behavior |
| Time out | removal of attention as a reinforcer |
| Behaviorism | Learning through conditioning primary mechanism of development Systems of rewards and punishments used to shape and increase frequency of desired behaviors and extinguish undesired behaviors |
| Social development theories | Explain how children’s development is influenced by the people around them Examine the ways that human beings affect each other |
| Social learning theory | Children naturally imitate adults and older children Learn from vicarious reinforcement |
| Bioecological model | (Bronfenbrenner) Includes both individual biological/genetic factors And the social environment Considers the child’s environment as composed of a series of nested structures that impact development |
| Microsystem | the immediate environment that an individual child personally experiences and participates in |
| Mesosystem | the interconnections among microsystem components |
| Exosystem | environmental settings that a child does not directly experience but that can affect the child indirectly |
| Modern social learning theories | Place more emphasis on the cognitive aspects of observational learning Attention and memory are important Child-environment influences operate in both directions: reciprocal determinism |
| Psychoanalytic theories | Not empirically supported |
| Modern Social Cognition Theories | Build on social learning theories to incorporate The multiple cognitive processes required to reason about their own and other people’s thoughts, feelings, motives, involved in social behavior Emphasize the process of self-socialization |
| What age is social referencing evident by? | 12 months |
| Social referencing | the use of a parent’s or other adult’s facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations |
| By age 3, children can identify situations | that make people happy |
| By age 4, children can identify situations | that make people sad |
| By age 5, children can identify situations | likely to elicit anger, fear, surprise |
| By age 7, children can identify | self-conscious social emotions (pride, guilt, shame, embarrassment) |
| By what age do children realize that emotions people express may not reflect true feelings? | age 3 |
| By what age can children express false emotions | age 5 |
| Display rules | A social group’s informal norms about how, when, where, and how much one should show vs mask or suppress certain emotions |
| Advances in display rules are linked to | increases in cognitive capacities |
| hostile attributional bias | misattribute others actions to a hostile intention toward them Aggressive and abused children may have difficulty reasoning about the intentions of others |
| Cognitive empathy | understanding rather than feeling others distress Perspective taking - requires theory of mind Develops later |
| Affective empathy | ‘feeling bad’ for someone May involve simulating another’s emotions in yourself |
| Socialization | process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their culture |
| Parents as direct instructors | directly teaching skills, rules, and values |
| Parents as social managers | managing children’s experiences and social lives, including exposure to people, activities, and information |
| Parents as indirect socializers | indirect socialization through their own behavior with and around their children |
| Two general dimensions of parental behavior | The degree of warmth and responsiveness that parents show their children The amount of control parents exert over their children |
| Children with authoritarian and uninvolved parents typically have | lower self-esteem and are less skilled socially (may be aggressive), lower grades |
| Children with permissive parents | tend to be impulsive and easily frustrated, lower grades |
| Children with authoritative parents | tend to have better social skills, be responsible and self-reliant, and have higher grades |
| parallel play | play near each other, but don’t interact much |
| Relational aggression | excluding others from social group and attempting to do harm to other people’s relationships Spreading rumors about peers, withholding friendship, ignoring peers when angry or frustrated, trying to get one’s own way |
| Chronosystem | historical changes that influence the other systems |
| Parental-investment Theory | A theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior, including the extensive investment parents make in their offspring |
| vicarious reinforcement | Observing someone else receive a reward or punishment |
| Intermittent reinforcement | inconsistent response to the behavior of another person - for example, sometimes punishing an unacceptable behavior and sometimes ignoring it |
| Behavior modification | a form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior |
| Achievement motivation | refers to whether children are motivated by learning goals or by performance goals |
| Performance goals | seeking to receive positive assessments of their competence or to avoid negative assessments |
| Learning goals | seeking to improve their competence and master new material |
| Ethology | the study of the evolutionary bases of behavior |
| Imprinting | a form of learning in which the newborns of some species of birds and mammals become attached to and follow adult members of the species (usually their mother) |
| Role taking | being aware of the perspective of another person, thereby better understanding that person’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings |
| Incremental theory | a theory that a person’s intelligence can grow as a function of experience |
| Entity theory | a theory that a person’s level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable |
| Incremental/mastery orientation | a general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure |
| Entity/helpless orientation | a general tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and to give up in the face of failure |
| Systematic desensitization | a form of therapy based on classical conditioning, in which positive responses are gradually conditioned to stimuli that initially elicited a highly negative response. This approach is especially useful in the treatment of fears and phobias |
| Oedipus complex | Freud’s term for the conflict experienced by boys in the phallic period because of their sexual desire for their mother and their fear of retaliation by their father |
| Internalization | the process of adopting as one’s own the attributes, beliefs, and standards of another person |
| Electra complex | Freud’s term for the conflict experienced by girls in the phallic stage when they develop unacceptable romantic feelings for their father and see their mother as a rival |
| Oral stage | the first stage in Freud’s theory, occurring in the 1st year, in which the primary source of satisfaction and pleasure is oral activity |
| Anal stage | the second stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from the 2nd year through the 3rd year, in which the primary source of pleasure comes from defecation |
| Phallic stage | the third stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from age 3 to age 6, in which sexual pleasure is focused on the genitalia |
| Latency period | the fourth stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from age 6 to age 12, in which sexual energy gets channeled into socially acceptable activities |
| Genital stage | the final stage in Freud’s theory, beginning in adolescence, in which sexual maturation is complete and sexual intercourse is a major goal |
| Id | in psychoanalytic theory, the earliest and most primitive personality structure. It is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure |
| Superego | in psychoanalytic theory, the third personality structure, consisting of internalized moral standards |
| Ego | in psychoanalytic theory, the second personality structure to develop. It is the rational, logical, problem-solving component of personality |
| Erogenous zones | in Freud’s theory, areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development |
| Psychic energy | Freud’s term for the collection of biologically based instinctual drives that he believed fuel behavior, thoughts, and feelings |
| Differential (or discrete) emotions theory | Emotions are innate and discrete from one another from very early in life Each emotion is believed to be packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions |
| Functional perspective | The basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal Emotions are learned and vary somewhat based on the social environment |
| Constructed emotions | constructed in the moment from core affect + emotion concepts in one’s culture |
| The string pull experiment demonstrated that 3 month olds | Can express basic emotions including delight, frustration and anger |
| Social smiles tend to emerge around | 6-7 weeks |
| According to Lisa Feldman Barrett's model, an emotion like "excited" consists of | pleasant and activated core affect plus interpretations of those feelings based on past experience and culture |
| Which statement would an emotional functionalist be MOST likely to make? | "The purpose of anger is to initiate movement to eliminate an obstacle to one's goal." |
| When infant Juan is strapped into a car seat where he cannot easily move, he does not react negatively, but sits quietly. To which dimension of temperament does this situation refer? | Negative affectivity |
| Thomas exhibited fearful distress as an infant when presented with novel stimuli; at age 2, he showed elevated levels of fear in a novel situation; and at age 4½, he showed elevated levels of social inhibition. This example demonstrates the | stability of temperament over time. |
| Genes account for a(n) _____ portion of the variation in some aspects of temperament. | substantial |
| Emotional self-regulation does NOT include | eliminating all subjective negative feelings. |
| Newborns' emotions are MOST frequently regulated in which way? | through other people's attempts to soothe and distract the baby |
| baby Rachel sucks her thumb and rubs the ribbons in her baby doll's hair in response to fear-provoking situations. Baby Rachel is engaging in | Self-comforting |
| _____ is an example of a cognitive emotional regulation strategy. | Downplaying the importance of the situation |
| In general, the development of emotional regulation is NOT characterized by | increased reliance on co-regulation |
| The concept that certain risk factors can lead to different outcomes is called | multifinality |
| The concept that certain risk factors do not always lead to a mental disorder is called | multifinality |
| _____ indicates that the same characteristics that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh home environment also leads them to blossom when their home environments are positive. | Differential susceptibility |
| _____ involve(s) the inability to control worry about multiple topics. | generalized anxiety disorder |
| _____ is a psychotherapeutic approach that is very effective in treating depression and anxiety in children. | cognitive behavioral therapy |
| _____ is a mental disorder that involves a sad or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that affect the child or adolescent's ability to behave and interact in a normal way. | major depressive disorder |
| Which factor is NOT needed for separation anxiety to be considered a mental disorder? | generalization to all caregivers |
| 11-year-old S resists all attempts to tell him what to do, & loses his temper easily when a teacher or parent tries to direct him. He can be spiteful and vindictive. He actively defies adults & blames others for his misbehavior. This is indicative of | oppositional defiant disorder |
| Children with ADHD typically | have difficulty inhibiting impulses to act |
| Which is typical of children with conduct disorder (CD)? | inflicting pain on others |
| Emotion coaching | caregivers helping children to express their emotions appropriately |
| Co-regulation | the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce his or her distress |
| Self-comforting behaviors | repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation |
| Self-distraction | looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one’s level of arousal |
| Anxiety | mood state characterized by strong, negative emotion and bodily symptoms in which an individual apprehensively anticipates future danger or misfortune |
| Fear | immediate alarm reaction to current danger |
| Fears present in infancy | loud noises, being startled, strangers |
| Fears present in toddlerhood | dark, separation |
| Fears present in school-age children | injury, natural disasters |
| Fears present in adolescence | competency-based concerns, social evaluation |
| Separation anxiety disorder | excessive distress (beyond what is developmentally appropriate) when separation from attachment figure is anticipated and worry about possible harm to attachment figure, or to self when away from attachment figure |
| Social anxiety disorder | excessive anxiety about and avoidance of one or more social situations involving fear of judgment or humiliation |
| Generalized anxiety disorder | excessive and uncontrollable worry about at least two domains (eg. school, health, family, world events) and physical symptoms (eg. stomach or muscle aches, insomnia, fatigue) |
| Panic disorder | repeated panic attacks (“fight or flight” response) that come out of the blue, and worry about having another attack |
| anhedonia | loss of interest or pleasure |
| Dependent stressors | events you played some role in causing (eg. interpersonal and academic problems) |
| Rumination | dwelling on negative events and emotions and their causes and consequences without engaging in efforts to improve the situation |
| Negative attributional style | attributing negative outcomes to stable, global and internal causes |
| behavioral activation | engage in behaviors that improve your mood, even if you don’t feel like it |
| cognitive restructuring | challenges unrealistic and unhelpful thoughts |
| Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) | Uncooperative, defiant, and hostile toward peers, parents, teachers, and other authority figures Usually appears in early to middle childhood |
| Virtually all who have __ have __ first | CD, ODD |
| Conduct Disorder (CD) | Late childhood/adolescence Pattern of behavior in which basic rights of others and major age-appropriate societal norms are violated (eg, harm to people or animals, destruction of property, theft, and other serious rule violations) |
| What disorder looks much like adult antisocial personality disorder | conduct disorder |
| Most effective treatment for CD | parent training in reinforcing positive and discouraging negative behaviors |
| ADHD is __% more prevalent in __ than __ | 6-9%, boys, girls |
| Inattention | difficulty sustaining focus on tasks, easily distracted, disorganized Poor executive function |
| Impulsivity | difficulty waiting, interrupts or intrudes on others |
| Hyperactivity | fidgets, can’t sit still, talk excessively |
| Self-conscious emotions | emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others’ reactions to us |
| Social referencing | the use of a parent’s or other adult’s facial expression of vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations |
| Emotional intelligence | the ability to cognitively process information about emotions and to use that information to guide both thought and behavior |
| Social competence | the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others |
| Goodness of fit | the degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment |
| Differential susceptibility | a circumstance in which the same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh home environment also causes them to blossom when their home environment is positive |
| mental health | children’s sense of well-being both internally, such as in their emotions and stress levels, as well as externally, such as in their relationships with family members and peers |
| Stress | a physiological reaction to some change or threat in the environment |
| Toxic stress | the experience of overwhelming levels of stress without support from adults to help mitigate the effects of that stress |
| Mental disorder | a state of having problems with emotional reactions to the environment and with social relationships in ways that affect daily life |
| co-rumination | excessively discussing and self-disclosing emotional problems with another person |
| Multifinality | the concept that certain risk factors do not always lead to a mental disorder |
| Equifinality | the concept that various causes can lead to the same mental disorder |
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