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PSYC33A Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Core knowledge | basic set of evolutionary-based knowledge in specific domains that is present in infancy and the same across cultures and largely across species |
| Domain specific | information about a particular content area |
| Key principles of core object system | Cohesion Continuity Contact |
| Constructivism | the theory that infants build increasingly advanced understanding by combining basic brain architecture and processing biases with subsequent learning experiences |
| Schema | a unit of knowledge, like a concept, along with the behaviors associated with it |
| Assimilation | process by which new information is fit into an existing schema |
| Accommodate | adapt schemas by assimilating new information |
| Broad applicability | the type of thinking at each stage across many topics and contexts |
| Sensorimotor Stage | birth- 2 years Use sensory and motor abilities to perceive and explore the world around them Construct rudimentary concepts of time, space, and causality Become increasingly able to form enduring mental representations (eg. object permanence) |
| Object Permanence | the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view |
| Preoperational Stage | 2- 7 years old Begin to represent experiences in language & mental imagery Symbolic representation Tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object leads to inability to form certain concepts - eg. conservation of matter |
| Symbolic representation | the use of one object to stand for another, which makes a variety of new behaviors possible |
| Egocentrism | the tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own point of view |
| Concrete Operational Stage | 7-12 years old Children begin to reason logically about concrete objects and events in their world They can solve conservation problems |
| Formal Operational Stage | 12+ Attainment of this, in contrast to the other stages, is not universal The ability to think abstractly and to reason hypothetically Can imagine alternative worlds & reason systematically about all possible outcomes of a situation |
| Continuous development | Cognitive growth is viewed as constant and typically occurring in small increments rather than abruptly |
| Task analysis | break down complex processes into simple components |
| Computer simulation | a type of mathematical model that expresses ideas about mental processes in precise ways |
| Problem Solving | the process of attaining a goal by using a strategy to overcome an obstacle |
| Joint attention | social partners focus on the same external object |
| Guided participation | a process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to learn |
| Social scaffolding | a process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children’s thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their own |
| Intersubjectivity | the mutual understanding that people share during communication Role of culture |
| Dynamic Systems Theory | Children learn by exploration & selection They are active problem solvers from infancy, sensitive to changes in environments Innately motivated to explore, observe, & practice new skills Try a variety of strategies & select the more successful ones |
| Sociocultural Theories | Emphasize that other people and the surrounding culture contribute greatly to children’s development Takes place through direct interactions between children and others (eg. parents, siblings, teachers, friends) |
| Information Processing Theories | Children are active problem solvers who use different strategies to solve problems |
| Overlapping Waves | At any given time, children possess several different strategies for solving a given problem With age and experience, the strategies that produce more successful performance become more prevalent Children benefit from this strategic variability |
| The child as a limited capacity processing system | Biological development & learning interact to enable children to more effectively solve problems Increasing processing speed, myelination and synaptic pruning Expanding memory capacity Acquisition of new strategies & knowledge |
| Basic processes | the simplest and most frequently used mental activities |
| Embodiment | perception, action, and cognition form an integrated system that cannot be partitioned Change in one aspect of a system impacts other aspects of the system |
| Individuality | evelopment happens in individual children solving individual problems in their own unique ways Because each child’s body, brain, and experience are different, there are multiple pathways to development |
| Autobiographical memories | memories of one’s own experiences, including one’s thoughts and emotions |
| A-not-B error | the tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than in the new location where it was last hidden |
| Deferred Imitation | the repetition of other people’s behavior a substantial time after it originally occurred |
| Centration | the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event |
| Conservation Concept | the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not necessarily change the objects’ other key properties |
| Working Memory | memory system that involves actively attending to, gathering, maintaining, storing, and processing information |
| Long-term memory | information retained on an enduring basis |
| Encoding | the process of representing in memory information that draws attention or is considered important |
| Rehearsal | the process of repeating information multiple times to aid memory of it |
| Selective attention | the process of intentionally focusing on the information that is most relevant to the current goal |
| Attachment | an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time. Usually, attachments are discussed in regard to the relation between infants and specific caregivers, although they can also occur in adulthood |
| Henry Harlow | Proposed that the attachment with the mother/ caregiver develops due to the sense of security and comfort provided. |
| Results of monkey study | Preferred the soft “mother” even tho it didn't give nourishment Monkeys raised w/o their mothers or others were socially maladjusted Unable to parent their offspring, abusing or neglecting them. |
| Attachment theory | theory based on John Bowlby’s work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival |
| Secure base | refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment |
| Pre-attachment | (birth to 6 weeks): Innate signals (crying) to obtain comfort |
| Attachment-in-the-making | (6 weeks to 6–8 months): Respond to familiar face by smiling, laughing, babbling |
| Clear-cut attachment | (6–8 months to 1 ½ years) : Actively seek contact with caregivers, protest when caregivers leave |
| Reciprocal relationships | (1 ½ to 2 years and older): Increased understanding of parents’ feelings, allowing for a more mutual relationship |
| Internal working model of attachment | the child’s mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. Guides children’s interactions w/ caregivers & others in infancy and at older ages |
| Measurement of attachment security | Interviewing parent/caregivers about behaviors and quality of relationship Can be biased Measured by observing children’s behavior with caregivers Strange Situation (Mary Ainsworth) |
| Secure attachment | Infants/ young children have a positive & trusting relationship w/ caregiver In Strange Situation, infant may be upset when caregiver leaves but happy to see them return, recovering quickly from distress Use caregivers as secure base for exploration. |
| Benefits of securely attached children | Better social adjustment and skills Use appropriate emotional expression and communication Do better in school Have fewer behavioral problems |
| Insecure attachment | Pattern of attachment - infants/ young children have a less positive attachment to their caregiver than do securely attached children |
| Insecure/resistant (or ambivalent) attachment | Are clingy & stay close to their caregiver In Strange Situation: become very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone When caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort & resist efforts by caregiver to comfort them. |
| Insecure/avoidant attachment | Somewhat indifferent toward caregiver & may even avoid caregiver In Strange Situation: seem indifferent toward their caregiver before the caregiver leaves and indifferent/ avoidant when they return If upset alone, are easily comforted by a stranger |
| Disorganized/disoriented attachment | a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation. Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented |
| Risk factors for Poor Attachment: | Parent(s) insecurely attached themselves Lack model of secure attachment Parent(s) mental health problems Long and/or sudden and unpredictable separations from parent(s) Children high in negative emotionality |
| Parental sensitivity | caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress |
| Strange situation | a procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infants’ attachment to their primary caregiver |
| Instrumental (operant) conditioning | learning the relation between one’s own behavior and the consequences that result from it |
| Statistical learning | Involves implicitly detecting statistically predictable patterns (pattern recognition) in the environment Observed in newborns and throughout the lifespan Proposed to be important to language learning |
| Positive reinforcement | a reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated |
| Contingency relation | By 3 months, infants can quickly learn the contingency between their behavior (kicking) and an external event (moving mobile) |
| Observational learning | Ability to imitate others develops gradually: |
| Observational Learning at 6 months | Imitation of tongue protrusions |
| Observational Learning at 6 to 9 months | Imitation of some observed, novel actions—even after 24-hour delay |
| Observational Learning at 15 months | Imitation of adult actions performed on television |
| Observational Learning at 18 months | Imitation of what adult intended to do, not what was actually done |
| Theory of mind | An organized understanding of how mental processes (e.g., intentions, desires, beliefs, perception, knowledge and emotions) influence behavior Not fully developed until later in childhood, but develops gradually starting in infancy |
| Affordances | the possibilities for action offered, or afforded, by objects and situations |
| Self-locomotion | the ability to move oneself around in the environment |
| Preferential-looking technique | a method for studying visual attention in infants that involves showing infants two patterns or two objects at a time to see if the infants have a preference for one over the other |
| Habituation | Infant is repeatedly presented with a given stimulus until the response declines |
| Stereopsis | the process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals caused by binocular disparity, resulting in the perception of depth |
| Binocular disparity | the difference between the retinal image of an object in each eye that results in two slightly different signals being sent to the brain Emerges suddenly around 4 months |
| Experience-expectant process | Need visual input from both eyes |
| Perceptual narrowing | developmental changes in which experience fine-tunes the perceptual system |
| Other species effect | babies lose the ability to discriminate between monkey faces because they have limited experience with them. |
| Other race effect | babies lose the ability to make fine discriminations between faces of races with which they have limited experience. Control of eye movements |
| Eyesight at 0-2 months | eyes not well coordinated and may appear to wander or cross |
| Eyesight at 2-3 months | begin to track moving objects with their eyes and reach for things they see, visual scanning improves |
| Perceptual constancy | the perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, color, etc., in spite of physical differences in the retinal image of the object |
| Object segregation | The identification of separate objects in a visual array |
| Tonotopy | Mapping of frequencies onto primary auditory cortex Processing that enables spatial localization of sound |
| Temporal processing | Auditory perception is critical for language development |
| Sensation | the producing of basic information from the external world by the sensory receptors in the sense organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc) and brain |
| Perception | the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information |
| Visual acuity | the sharpness of visual discrimination |
| Contrast sensitivity | the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern |
| Cones | the light-sensitive neurons that are highly concentrated in the fovea (the central region of the retina) |
| Optical expansion | a depth cue in which an object occludes increasingly more of the background, indicating that the object is approaching |
| Monocular depth (or pictorial) cues: | the perceptual cues of depth (such as relative size and interposition) that can be perceived by one eye alone |
| Auditory localization | perception of the location in space of a sound source Intermodal perception: the combining of information from two or more sensory systems |
| Reflexes | innate, fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation |
| Stepping reflex | a neonatal reflex in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking |
| Pre-reaching movements | clumsy swiping movements by young infants toward the general vicinity of objects they see |
| Scale error | the attempt by a young child to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible due to the large discrepancy in the relative sizes of the child and the object |
| Differentiation | extracting from the constantly changing stimulation and events in the environment the relation of those elements that are constant - invariant, or stable |
| Rational learning | the ability to use prior experiences to predict what will occur in the future |
| Active learning | learning by acting on the world, rather than passively observing objects and events |
| Violation of expectancy | a procedure used to study infant cognition in which infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if it violates something the infant knows or assumes to be true |
| Conditioned response (CR) | in classical conditioning, the originally reflexive response that comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | in classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus |
| Unconditioned response (UCR) | in classical conditioning, a reflexive response that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus |
| Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes a reflexive response |
| Symbols | systems for representing our thoughts, feelings, and knowledge and for communicating them to other people |
| Ionic symbol | picture of what they represent |
| Arbitrary symbol | no direct relationship to what it means |
| Generativity | refers to the idea that through the use of the finite set of words and morphemes in humans’ vocabulary, we can put together an infinite number of sentences and express an infinite number of ideas |
| Language processing area in brain | primarily left hemisphere |
| Infant-directed speech (IDS) | distinctive mode of speech that adults adopt when talking to babies & very young children Includes warm and affectionate tone, high pitch, extreme intonation, and slower speech accompanied by exaggerated facial expressions Preferred by infants |
| Phonemes | the elementary units of meaningful sound used to produce languages |
| Morphemes | the smallest units of meaning in a language, composed of one or more phonemes |
| Babbling | repetitive consonant-vowel sequences (“bababa…”) or hand movements (for learners of sign languages) produced during the early phases of language development Starts around 7 months and gradually becomes more specific to native language sounds |
| Semantic Development | the learning of the system for expressing meaning in a language, including word learning |
| Semantics | Meaning of language, including word meaning |
| Syntax | rules in a language that specify how words from different categories (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and so on) can be combined |
| Pragmatic development | the acquisition of knowledge about how language is used |
| Pragmatics | How language is used Initiating conversation Conversational turn-taking Asking and answering questions Staying on topic Appropriate use of eye contact, body language and intonation |
| collective monologue | conversation between children that involves a series of non sequiturs, the content of each child’s turn having little or nothing to do with what the other child has just said |
| narratives | descriptions of past events that have the basic structure of a story |
| Social-communicative language problems | Can occur alone or as part of autism spectrum disorder |
| Word segmentation | the process of discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech |
| Distributional properties | the phenomenon that in any language, certain sounds are more likely to appear together than are others |
| Shape bias | Children extend labels to objects of the same shape, rather than the same color or texture |
| Syntactic bootstrapping | the strategy of using the grammatical structure of whole sentences to figure out meaning |
| Pragmatic cues | : aspects of the social context used for word learning These include the speaker's focus of attention even when the listener can’t see what they are looking at. |
| Holophrastic period | when children begin using the words in their small productive vocabulary one word at a time Most infants produce their first words between 10–15 months of age |
| Overextension | the use of a given word in a broader context than is appropriate (e.g., all animals are “doggie”) |
| Bilingualism | the ability to use two languages |
| Telegraphic speech | the term describing children’s first sentences that are generally two-word utterances (e.g., “drink juice,” “read me”) Su |
| Overregularization | speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular |
| Critical period for language (sensitive period) | the time during which language develops readily and after which (sometime between age 5 and puberty) language acquisition is much more difficult and ultimately less successful |
| When does the sensitive period for perceiving phonemes close? | around 10 months |
| Production | with regard to language, speaking (or writing or signing) to others |
| Comprehension | with regard to language, understanding what others say (or sign or write) |
| Phonological development | the acquisition of knowledge about the sound system of a language |
| Prosody | the characteristic rhythm, tempo, cadence, melody, intonational patterns, and so forth with which a language is spoken |
| Categorical perception | the perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories |
| Voice Onset Time (VOT) | the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating |
| Reference | in language and speech, the associating of words and meaning |
| Universal grammar | a proposed set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all languages |
| connectionism | a type of information-processing approach that emphasizes the simultaneous activity of numerous interconnected processing units |
| Dual representation | the idea that a symbolic artifact must be represented mentally in two ways at the same time - both as a real object and as a symbol for something other than itself |
| Modularity hypothesis | the idea that the human brain contains an innate, self-contained language module that is separate from other aspects of cognitive functioning |
| Fast mapping | : the process of rapidly learning a new word simply from hearing the contrastive use of a familiar and the unfamiliar word |
| Categories | General ideas or understandings used to group together objects, events, qualities, or abstractions that are similar in some way Crucial for helping people make sense of the world Enables inferences about new members of a category |
| Perceptual categorization/organization | the grouping together of objects that have similar appearances |
| Category hierarchy | a category that is organized by set-subset relations, such as animal/dog/poodle |
| Superordinate level | the general level within a category hierarchy/such as “animal” in the animal/dog/poodle example |
| Basic level | the middle level, and often the first level learned, within a category hierarchy, such as “dog” in the animal/dog/poodle example |
| Subordinate level | the most specific level within a category hierarchy, such as “poodle” in the animal/dog/poodle example |
| Naive psychology | a common sense level of understanding of other people and oneself |
| Declarative memory | Things you know that you can tell others |
| Nondeclarative (procedural) memory | Things you know that you can show by doing |
| Episodic memory | Remembering your first day of school |
| Semantic memory | Knowing the capital of France |
| Skill learning | Knowing how to ride a bicycle |
| Priming | being more likely to use a word you heard recently |
| Conditioning | Salivating when you see a favorite food |
| Infantile amnesia | Adults are unable to recall specific episodic memories from before about age 3, and have few such memories until about age 6 |
| Rehearsal | Repeating presented information |
| Organization | Discovering or imposing structure on items to guide subsequent performance |
| Meta-memory | Knowledge about memory and own memory capabilities |
| Self knowledge | Before you can understand other people, must have an understanding of self and others as separate people |
| When can infants start to recognize themselves? | starting at 18 months |
| Theory of mind | an organized understanding of how mental processes such as intentions, desires, beliefs, perceptions, and emotions influence behavior |
| False-belief problems | asks that test a child’s understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs even when the child knows that those beliefs are incorrect |
| Pretend play | make believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one |
| Object substitution | a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself, for example, using a broom to represent a horse |
| Sociodramatic play | activities in which children enact miniature dramas with other children or adults, such as “mother comforting baby” |
| Essentialism | the view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are |
| Theory of mind module (TOMM) | a hypothesized brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings Evidence from brain imaging studies. |
| Egocentric spacial representations | coding of spatial locations relative to one’s own body, without regard to the surroundings |
| Causal reasoning | By 1 year old, understand causality in simple physical events (e.g., collisions) They do not understand causality for more complex events Toddlers & pre-k expect that, if a variable causes an effect, it should consistently |
| Representing space | Early in life, children understand the location of objects relative to their bodies |
| one-one correspondance | each object must be labeled by a single number word |
| Stable order | The numbers should always be recited in the same order |
| Cardinality | The number of objects in the set corresponds to the last number stated. |
| Abstractions | Any set of discrete objects or events can be counted |
| Numerical equality | the realization that all sets of N objects have something in common |
| Which statement is NOT a reason developmental psychologists find theories of child development useful? | Theories provide definitive answers to key questions about child development. |
| According to the core knowledge perspective, infants are born with core domains of thought that develop ___________________. | independently |
| All of the following are proposed to be core knowledge domains EXCEPT | reading |
| Core knowledge theorists think acquisition of the core knowledge domains is all of the following EXCEPT | domain-general |
| Core knowledge theories believe that there is a core knowledge system for how objects behave (cohesion, continuity, contact). Which of the following would they NOT consider support for this theory? | children are only surprised by violations of these properties after they physically interact with the objects |
| Piaget believed that children of different ages think in _____ ways. | qualitatively different |
| Accommodation refers to the process by which children | adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences. |
| Which list represents Piaget's stages in the CORRECT chronological order | sensorimotor > preoperational > concrete operational > formal operational |
| Devon has just begun to use objects to stand for other objects. For instance, his current favorite game is to pretend to play guitar on a toy golf club. Devon is probably in Piaget's _____ stage. | pre operational |
| The experiment in which Piaget asks what a person would see if it were sitting in a chair across the table from the child was designed to examine | egocentrism |
| Shows child two clay "sausages" that are identical size & shape. Then allows the child to watch as rolls 1 of the clay sausages into longer, thinner piece. Asks if 2 sausages still have same amount of clay. In preoperational stage would MOST likely say | "No, the longer sausage has more clay than the shorter sausage." |
| Mark is clearly in Piaget's _____ stage of cognitive development. He can solve conservation problems correctly. | concrete operational |
| According to Piaget's theory, Juan, who is in the _____ stage of cognitive development, should be able to conduct a systematic scientific experiment. | formal operational |
| Which statement is NOT true regarding Piaget's theory of cognitive development? | Piaget's theory overestimates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development. |
| According to information-processing theories, cognitive development does NOT occur as children go through the process of | coming to utilize innate understandings of crucial concepts. |
| task analysis refers to | breaking down tasks into specific component processes |
| Which statement is TRUE according to information-processing theories? | changes are constantly occurring |
| Myelination and increased connectivity among brain regions contribute to which development with age? | faster processing |
| Theo is a first-grader just learning addition. According to information processing theories, what is likely to be TRUE of his arithmetic development? | At any given time, he may use multiple different strategies, with the mix of strategies shifting over time. |
| Which is the BEST example of guided participation? | Marika's mother holds the screwdriver in the screw so that Marika can turn it without it falling out. |
| Gregory and his father are baking cookies together. Which factor would NOT be considered by sociocultural theorists to be a cultural tool involved in this interaction? | the tempurature needed to bake the cookies |
| 10 month old Claudia & her mother are playing. Her mom looks up at the ceiling fan & says, “Claudia, look at the fan. Around and around it goes!” She notices her mom is looking up, so she looks up at the fan as well. Claudia & her mother are engaging in | joint attention |
| Private speech is conceived of by Vygotsky as a(n) | step toward internalizing parents' statements. |
| According to the dynamic-systems perspective, development | is changing constantly and is different for each child |
| The dynamic-systems approach considers _____ to be a mechanism for change. | variation and selection |
| Compared with the other theories described in the chapter, dynamic-systems theories place particular emphasis on children's | actions |
| Which of the following illustrates the concept of embodiment? | Children's spatial cognition changes as they go from crawling to walking. |
| According to dynamic systems theories, motor development is driven by | learning through trial and error |
| To examine whether infants can perceive a difference btwn a square of uniform color & a square w/ a pattern on it, a researcher displays 2 squares side by side. They record the # of seconds infants look @ each square. This is called the __ technique. | preferential-looking |
| Examine if infants perceive a difference btwn 2 stimuli, Prof 1st shows 1 stimulus until he is no longer interested in the object. Then shows a new stimulus & records if the infant is interested in the new stimulus. This is called the __ technique | habituation |
| Which statement about research on infants' and adults' ability to differentiate between pairs of human faces and between pairs of monkey faces is TRUE? | At 6 months of age, infants can successfully differentiate between pairs of human faces and between pairs of monkey faces, but older infants and adults have lost the ability to differentiate between monkey faces. |
| The development of _____ is an example of experience-expectant plasticity. | stereopsis |
| Five-month-old Judy sees a novel sight—flowers arranged in a vase. The MOST important cue that would help Judy know whether she is seeing a single object or multiple objects is | independent movement of the flowers as they are removed from the vase. |
| The change in retinal image size as a moving object gets closer, but we perceive the object to be the same size: this is referred to as_______________, and is present starting at _____ | perceptual constancy, birth |
| Developmental changes in which experience fine-tunes the perceptual system are referred to as | perceptual narrowing |
| Mapping sound frequencies onto auditory cortex is called ________________, and is a_____________ process. | tonotopy; experience-expectant |
| The fact that newborns show perceptual constancy for size is most consistent with which theory? | core knowledge |
| Charlie is 3 months old and consistently swipes clumsily toward the general area of objects he sees. He is engaged in | pre-reaching movements |
| Research examining infants' sitting skills and their 3D object completion skills suggests that | there is a great deal of interaction between visual development and motor development. |
| Which statement about self-locomotion is NOT true? | All infants begin self-locomotion with belly crawling. |
| Which groups of infants would know their own limitations if placed at the top of a steep incline? | experienced crawlers and experienced walkers |
| Many current theorists of motor development take the _____ approach. | dynamic-systems |
| statistical learning involves | forming associations between stimuli that occur in a predictable pattern. |
| Research in which 18-month-olds observed either an adult or a mechanical device pull at two ends of a dumbbell demonstrated that children can learn by imitating what? | both the behavior and intentions of adults |
| An infant learns a new way to climb up on the living room sofa by watching his older sibling through which type of learning? | observational learning |
| Infant makes many vocalizations during the day. Some vocalizations elicit no response from parents, but several elicit laughter & hugging from parents. She increases how frequently she makes vocalizations to elicit hugs by which type of learning? | Instrumental conditioning |
| The study in which infants watched objects lowered into different sized containers demonstrated that | infants learn object properties like height and width one at a time between about 5-8 months. |
| What does the study in which an infant sees a researcher change which object they reach for demonstrate about infants' theory of mind understanding? | One year olds can understand that that reaching for an object indicates preference, and that another person can have a different visual perspective from them. |
| In the Strange Situation, Jacob plays actively w/ the toys in the room, occasionally looking back to check on his mom, is mildly distressed when his mother leaves the room, and is easily comforted by her return. Jacob falls into which attachment category? | secure |
| In the Strange Situation, Olivia clings to her mom, plays little with the toys in the room, & is extremely distressed when her mom leaves. When her mom returns to the room & picks her up, she arches her back to get away. She is in which attachment? | insecure/resistant |
| Parents who resist their infants' attempts at physical closeness and who are emotionally unavailable are more likely than are other mothers to have infants who are | insecure/avoidant |
| Which attachment category is often associated with infants whose parents exhibit abusive behavior? | disorganized/distressed |
| When the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with the ability to explore the environment, the child is using the caregiver as a | secure base |
| An individual's mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general that is based on early experiences with caregivers is referred to as his or her | internal working model |
| The notion that an infinite number of sentences and ideas can be expressed through a finite set of words is referred to as | generatively |
| The fact that language learning is achieved by typically developing infants across the globe so long as they are exposed to language indicates that language development is | experience-expectant |
| The period before approximately age 5 is considered to be the _____ period for language development. | sensitive |
| Kayla is talking to her infant daughter. Based on what you know about infant directed speech, you can expect Kayla to do all of these EXCEPT | show less pitch variability. |
| The function of Wernicke's area is to | map sound to meaning for perception and production |
| The function of Broca's area is to | support production and comprehension when there is conflict between words or words are hard to retrieve |
| The perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories is known as | categorical perception |
| Adults perceive speech sounds | categorically, perceiving only phonemic contrasts used in their native language. |
| Which statement about the results of Janet Werker's research on 6- to 12-month-old infants' ability to distinguish between speech sounds that are not important in their native language is TRUE? | Infants 6 to 8 months old were able to distinguish between the speech sounds, but 10- to 12-month-olds were unable to make the distinctions. |
| Maggie has just begun to babble. How old is she likely to be? | 7 months |
| Which phrase does NOT describe a characteristic of babbling by older infants? | independent of experience |
| Two-year-old Shana is shown a novel object. The object is 6 inches wide, is made out of blue wire, and is in the shape of an octagon. An adult tells Shana, "This is a glub." Of these objects, which is Shana MOST likely to later believe is a glub? | a 12-inch octagonal object made out of red felt |
| Using the distributional properties of language is an example of what type of learning? | statistical learning |
| In an experiment used to test the mutual exclusivity constraint on word learning, children saw a familiar and an unfamiliar item. Which object(s) did children select when they were asked to "show me the blicket"? Why? | They chose the unfamiliar item because they already had a word for the familiar object. |
| The study in which an experimenter said a novel word while looking in a bucket, then showed toddlers two novel objects demonstrated that children | use adults' focus of attention as a cue to word meaning. |
| Toddler sees baby being tickled by a boy & hears mom say, "The boy is tickling the baby." She has never heard this word. She figures out "tickling" is what the boy is doing to the baby, not what the baby is doing (laughing & waving her arms), thru | syntactic bootstrapping |
| Which child is demonstrating overextension? | Mandi uses the word "cup" for any container that holds liquid, including vases and birdbaths. |
| Brianna is three-years-old and is playing with one of her friends. They begin to fight over the ball and Brianna says, “He hitted me!” Brianna is demonstrating: | overregularization |
| Two-year-old Annie's utterances include, "more juice" and "hurt knee." She is demonstrating | telegraphic speech |
| he study in which children were asked questions about made-up words like "wug" demonstrated that: | Children learn the rules of syntax rather than memorizing individual word forms |
| The study of the English proficiency of Korean and Chinese immigrants in the United States demonstrated that knowledge of English grammar was associated with the | age at which individuals began learning English. |
| The sensitive period for syntax development ends around | 5-7 years |
| Newport's less-is-more hypothesis is that | children's memory limitations and smaller vocabularies make learning of syntax easier by simplifying the input |
| Learning _____ is considered part of pragmatic development. | how to take turns during conversations with others |
| C & J are playing. J says, "My mom took me to watch construction. C responds "This is yellow. I have one like this at home." Then J says, "They're putting a pipe under it." C says, "I have a green truck. I got it for my bday." This is an example of | a collective monologue |
| Descriptions of past events that have the basic structure of a story and are produced by age 5 are referred to as | narratives |
| All of the following are true of social-communicative language problems EXCEPT | they are the result of a limited vocabulary |
| A plate and a clock would be put into the same category if the categorization were based on | perceptual similarities |
| Which pair would Iris, a 6-month-old infant, be MOST likely to place in the same category? | towel and rug |
| Which group lists the three objects in subordinate/basic/superordinate order? | sedan/car/vehicle |
| Which level of category hierarchies do children usually learn FIRST? | basic |
| __________level categories are harder to learn than basic level categories because they require more______. | superordinate, abstraction |
| Which statement is NOT an argument used by nativists to support the idea that people have a biology module? | Children during the preschool years tend to believe that plants are not alive. |
| Young children have difficulty understanding that plants are alive because children equate being alive with | being able to move |
| A task that tests a child's understanding that other people will act in accord with their own ideas even when the child knows that those ideas are incorrect is called | a false-belief problem |
| Trevor, a 2-year-old who loves the color red, is told a story about a boy named Andy. In the story, Andy loves the color blue. When Trevor is asked to choose the color crayon that Andy would likely choose when drawing a picture, Trevor will MOST likely | select blue because it is Andy's favorite color. |
| S, a 2-year-old, is told about a girl named B. B is looking for her favorite doll. Although B thinks the doll is under the bed, it is in the kitchen cabinet. When S is asked where B will look, S will MOST likely predict that B will look in which location? | in the kitchen cabinet |
| A, a 5-year-old, is told a story about a girl named B. B is looking for her favorite doll. Although B thinks it is under the bed, it is in the kitchen cabinet. When A is asked where B will look for her doll, A will MOST likely predict that B will look | under the bed |
| Which influence is NOT cited by modern constructivists when explaining the development of theory of mind ? | Solitary play experiences |
| Amanda has autism spectrum disorder. She is LEAST likely to have trouble with | understanding systems (like math and categories) |
| The study with the marble dispenser demonstrated that | Toddlers can learn about probabilistic causality from experience and will perform the action most likely to produce the desired effect |
| The coding of spatial locations relative to one's own body, without regard to the surroundings, is known as | egocentric spatial representation |
| Kim is five and trying to navigate around her new school. She is most likely to have trouble | integrating multiple egocentric and allocentric cues |
| Six-month-old infants are NOT able to | discriminate between two object arrays when their ratio is close to 1:1. |
| Infants' discriminations between numerical sets depend in large part on | the ratio of the number of entities in them, following Weber's law. |
| Which statement is NOT one of the counting principles? | objects must be counted from left to right |
| The two year old in the video who said the number words while touching crackers repeatedly at random demonstrated that at this age children do not yet understand | one-to-one correspondence |
| Which brain structure is particularly important for episodic memory? | hippocampus |
| What makes episodic memory different from other types of memory? | It involves binding multiple cues including place and time |
| Research with mice suggests that infantile amnesia may be due to | Addition of new neurons to the hippocampus, disrupting previously stored memories |
| Jose, as an adult, claims to have a clear, detailed memory of his second birthday party. What is the most likely explanation? | He is actually remembering pictures and stories his family told him about it when he was older. |
| Anne is 3 and Max is 8. If shown pictures of animals and vehicles and told they only have to remember the animals, what is each likely to do? | Max will only pay attention to the animals, but Anne will pay attention to both and have worse memory for the Animals as a result |
| Which is true of organization strategies for encoding? | Few 6-7 year olds will organize by categories on their own, but their memory benefits if they are instructed to do so |
| Which of the following is true of children's use of rehearsal? | Young children don't spontaneously rehearse; elementary age children use passive rehearsal; adolescents use active rehearsal |
| Nativism | “nature”: maturation of innate, genetically coded “plan” |
| Constructivism | biology + learning |
| Empiricism | “nurture”: most information from outside environment |
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