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exam 3 physiology
exam 3 physiology hoekstra 2023
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Be able to differentiate general and special senses | general senses have no special sensory organs, receptors are distrubted throughout the body, touch, temp, pian, itch,proprioception. specila senses have sensory organs & receptors, vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, smell |
| Are there differences in their pathways to the CNS for special and general senses? | CNS: spinal cord & brain PNS sensory- sensory organs to CNS & motor -CNS to muscles & glands |
| Compare and contrast different types of sensory neurons | simple; neurons w/free nerve endings, they may have myelinated or unmeylinated axons. complex; have nerve endings enclosed in connective tissue capsules special senses receptors: cells release neurotransmitter onto sensernorty neurons initating action pot |
| Olfaction and Gustation | Neurons in the olfactory cortex can respond to taste [7] and neurons in the gustatory cortex can respond to odors |
| What types of receptors do these senses use? | chemoreceptors |
| What is different about the olfactory pathway to the brain? What is a possible functional consequence? | Doesn't directly pass through the thalamus. In addition to leading to the sensory cortex, ascending pathways from the olfactory bulb also lead to the amygdala and hippocampus --> smell memories |
| Be able to describe differences between taste sensations which use direct channels vs. 2nd messenger systems. | 1. Sour- presence of H+ 2. Salty- presence of Na+ 3. Bitter- possibly toxic (30+ receptor variants) 4. Sweet- "nutritious foods" (complexities of sugars) 5. Unami- "nutritious foods" (glutamate~ MSG) |
| Why do taste receptor cells have tight junctions? | Prevent penetration of taste compounds into taste bud |
| Summarize similarities and differences between taste and olfaction | Olfaction goes to the limbic system and they are similar as they all enter the brain |
| Know the function of external anatomy of the eye. | -Lacrimal gland secretes tears -Muscles attached to the external surface of eye movement -The orbit is a bony cavity that protects the eye -Nasolacrimal duct drains tears into nasal cavity |
| Know the pathway of light to the photoreceptor. | Light reflected off objects --> enters cornea --> pupil -->lens --> vitreous humor --> arrives at retina |
| Understand the role of the cornea and lens with relation to focus on the fovea. | -cornea: focuses light -lens: bends light to focus it on the retina -retina: layer that contains photoreceptors -Fovea: region of sharpest vision |
| Understand different hypothesis explaining why the iris is pigmented. | controls the diameter of pupil and is a ring of pigmented muscle -two pigmented layers absorb light -blue and green mostly caused by changed amount or type of melanin in outer layer (stroma) -sexual selection? Is the reason for eye color variation |
| Understand explanation for the human blind spot. | -Optic disk (blind spot): region where optic nerve and blood vessels leave the eye |
| Know common definitions of vision disorders. | myopia: trouble focusing distance(nearsightedness) hyperopia: trouble focusing near objects (farsightedness) presbyopia: degenerative loss of ability to focus on near objects. thickening & loss of flexibility of lens, less elastic ciliary muscles |
| another common vision disorder | astigmatism: blurred vision caused by extra curvey cornea lack of & converging on a single spot |
| Differentiate sensitivity and distribution of rods v cones | Rods: (120 million per retina) black and white, can detect low level lights, and seeing at night -Cones: (20 million per retina) color vision, 3 types in humans (red, green, and blue) |
| Understand cellular physiology of phototransduction in rods | Light arrives at retina -->protein (a pigment) in rods/ cones changes shape --> signal is produced -->permeability of membrane to ions change --> action potential --> transduction thru optic nerve to brain |
| What differentiates ON vs. OFF bipolar cells? (hint: they have different types of glutamate receptors). | ON (in light): trans retinal in rhodopsin--> no neurotransmitter released --> action potential -OFF (in dark): cis retinal in rhodopsin --> neurotransmitter released --> no action potential |
| What are some basic properties which contribute to visual processing? (convergence, integration, specialization)? | Convergence: turn two eyes inward toward each other to look at a close object integration: processing & making basic decisons about whats going to send to brain specialization: making different types of things by chnaging receptor & playing w/wiring |
| What are “visual fields”? | Total area in which objects can be seen in the side (peripheral) vision as you focus you eyes on a central point) |
| What are examples of top-down versus bottom-up visual processing | top-down ex: optic illusion bottom-up ex: if you see an image of an individual letter on your screen, your eyes transmit the info to brain, & your brain puts all of this info together. |
| Describe how the functional anatomy of the outer, middle, and inner ear provide our sense of hearing | Outer: sound waves strike the tympanic membrane and become vibrations |
| describe the functional antomy of the middle ear | Middle: The sound wave energy is transferred to three bones to vibrate. The vibrations of the oval window create fluid waves within the cochlea. |
| describe the functional anatomy of the inner ear | Inner: The fluid waves push on membranes of cochlear duct. Hear cells bend and ion channels open, creating an electrical signal that alerts neurotransmitter release. |
| What type of receptor is the inner ear hair cell? | sensory receptors |
| What is one important reason that auditory information from the left and right ears “crosses over” on its way to the auditory cortexes? | allows for skills like sound localization |
| Understand and be able to differentiate among the three type of hearing loss? | -Sensorial: loss of receptors -Conductive: breaking the connection - loss of transmission thru ear -Central: nerve or brain damage |
| What type of receptors are used for the sense of equilibrium? (mechanical proprioceptors) | Vestibular apparatus |
| Distinguish between the arrangement of cells that provide a sense of linear vs. rotational acceleration. | Cristea: rotational acceleration -Maculae: linear acceleration |
| What is the difference in response of a tonic vs. phasic receptor in terms of their frequency of action potentials? Be able to give examples of senses that use tonic v phasic receptors | Tonic: slowly adapting receptors that respond for the duration of the stimulus (nociceptors, and proprioceptors- pain) -Phasic: rapidly adapt to a constant stimulus and turn off (olfactory) |
| What is the somatic nervous system? Compare and contrast with the autonomic nervous system. | Somatic controls voluntary movements and autonomic controls involuntary responses. |
| Describe three features of a somatic motor pathway | consist of one neuron -originates in the CNS (brain or spinal cord) -myelinated, very long, always excitatory--> ON switch and triggering contraction -terminal branches close to target and each terminal innervates a single skeletal muscle fiber |
| What are the three types of muscles? Compare and contrast their basic appearance and control | -Skeletal (long) (both skeletal & cardiac are straited) -Cardiac -Smooth |
| Describe flexor-extensor pairs (antagonistic muscle groups). | (usually attached to bones by tendons) -Flexor: brings bones together -Extensor: moves bones away -Flexor-extensor pairs form antagonist muscle groups ( when one is contracting one needs to relax vice versa) |
| Understand skeletal muscle terminology and basic organization (Table 12.1). | Muscle cell: muscle fiber -Cell membrane: sarcolemma -cytoplasm: sarcoplasm -modified endoplasmic reticulum: sarcoplasmic reticulum |
| What are the unique and important features of a skeletal muscle cell? | Muscle fiber: muscle cell -Endomysium: surrounds each muscle fiber -Fascicle: bundle of fibers -Perimysium: surrounds a fascicle -Muscle: collection of muscle fibers -Epimysium: surrounds the whole muscle |
| Distinguish thick vs thin filaments and be able to label the diagram of a sarcomere. | Thick: myosin is the primary protein. Inflexible tail region (long rod like structure). Critical for muscle contraction; Thin: many actin molecules form each thin filament |
| Understand the role of troponin and tropomyosin in regulating actin. | Tropomyosin: blocks myosin binding site. Troponin: holds tropomyosin in place and has Ca+ binding sites |
| Understand skeletal muscle contraction from (1) events at neuromuscular junction | when an action potential reaches axon terminals causing synaptic transmission- release of chemical signal of Ach on axon |
| understand the skeletal muscle contraction from. (2) exictation-contraction coupling involving calcium signaling | then gets releases into neural musular junction, bind to chemically gated receptors on cell membrane of SR |
| understand the skeletal muscle contraction from (3)the contraction-relaxation cycle as it relates to cross-bridge cycling and the sliding filament theory | T-tubule depolarization triggers the opening of voltage gates Ca+2 channels in the SR membrane. |
| Name 3 roles/uses of ATP in skeletal muscle cells | unbinding of myosin from actin and energizing myosin for power stroke -reuptake of Ca+2 into sarcoplasmic reticulum via Ca+2 pumps -Na+/K+ pump activity to help maintain proper concentration gradients |
| Describe the cellular mechanisms that allow a skeletal muscle cell to relax | Ca+2 pumped back into SR |
| Differentiate between isotonic & isometric contractions | Isotonic: contractions move loads -Isometric: contractions create force, no movement |
| Understand motor units and how muscle innervation can provide sustained contraction | Asynchronous recruitment: if skeletal muscle needs to sustain contraction, the CNS recruits motor units asynchronously |
| Understand the basics of fuel use during exercise, including the role of creatine phosphate as an intermediate energy store in metabolically demanding tissues. | Short term: ATP, creatine -Medium term: anaerobic glycolysis "lactic fermentation" -Long term: mitochondrial respiration |
| Distinguish among different muscle types with special emphasis on variation in cellular metabolism might determine difference in their performance | Slow twitch oxidative muscle fibers: darker color due to myoglobin and more red blood cells as it needs more oxygen -Fast-twitch glycolytic muscle fibers: pale |
| Where is smooth muscle found? | Involuntary muscle found in layers of organs |
| How is smooth muscle organized at the tissue level? (single- vs. multi-unit) | 1. Location a. Vascular (blood vessels), gastrointestinal, urinary, respiratory, reproductive, and ocular 2. Contrast Pattern a. Phasic smooth muscles b. Tonic smooth muscles i. Esophageal and urinary bladder sphincters |
| how is smooth muscle organized at the tissue level (single vs. multi -unit) 3rd | 3. Communication with neighboring cells a. Single-unit smooth muscle, or urinary smooth muscles, or visceral smooth muscles b. Multi-unit smooth muscle |
| How is smooth muscle organized at the cellular level compared to skeletal muscle? How might the cellular organization of myofilaments explain differences in appearance of skeletal vs muscle under the microscope? | -Smooth muscle - autonomic nervous system (also hormones, paracrine) -Low O2 consumption, sustained contraction, max, tension w25-30% of active cross-bridges -use actin and myosin, but NOT sarcomere-based -lots more actin, much longer myosin molecules |
| Compare and contrast mechanisms of contraction and relaxation in smooth muscle versus skeletal muscle | -Skeletal: strong contraction for a short period of time -Smooth: weaker contraction for a longer period of time |
| Name four different mechanisms that can increase cytosolic Ca2+ and trigger contraction of smooth muscle | -chemically-gates channels (ligands) -Mechanically-gates channels (stretch) -Second messenger systems (IP3) -Intracellular regulatory signals (store operated channels) |
| Define neural reflex | -the integration of sensory info an involuntary response neural pathway link sensory (afferent) to autonomic or somatic (efferent). Can be innate or learned |
| What types of efferent pathways can a neural reflex use? | -reflex -synapse -neurotransmitters -spinal cord -neurons |
| Give an example of an innate reflex and a learned reflex. | -Innate: plantar response reflex -Learned: potty training bladder |
| What can distinguish autonomic reflexes at the anatomical level? | Autonomic: presynaptic axon (myelinated), central neuron synapses with ganglionic neuron, autonomic post synaptic axon (unmyelinated) |
| what can distinguish skeletal reflexes at the anatomical level? | -Skeletal: Somatic motor neuron (myelinated), central fiber proteins to the target effector, Target effector: skeletal muscle, and axons ends at the synapse |
| Define and distinguish monosynaptic | Monosynaptic: reflex has a single synapse between the afferent and efferent neuron (skeletal muscles) |
| define and distinguish polysynaptic reflexes | Polysynaptic: reflexes have two or more synapses. This somatic motor reflex has both synapses in the CNS. (divergence) |
| Can autonomic reflexes by influenced by higher CNS input? | These reflexes are subject to influence from higher nervous centers, they may occur without input from the brain |
| Describe an example of a simple skeletal reflex, reciprocal inhibition, and a withdrawal reflex crossed extensory | Simple skeletal reflex: the addition of a load stretches the muscle and spindles, creating a flex contraction; Reciprocal inhibition: antagonist muscle groups (patellar tendon- knee jerk) |
| describe an example of a withdrawal reflex crossed extensory | Withdraw reflex (crossed extensor): A flexion of one limb causes extension in the opposite limb. The coordination of reflexes with postural adjustments is essential for maintaining balance. |
| What is a “feedforward reflex” as it relates to voluntary movement | -Causing changes in anticipation in preparation for movement. |
Created by:
nora.michele